Centre-State Relations & Inter-State Relations
India is a federal state with a strong unitary bias. The Constitution meticulously distributes powers between the Centre and States through three lists, financial transfers, and administrative directives. Mastering Arts 245–293 — legislative, administrative and financial relations — along with the mechanisms for inter-state cooperation (Art. 262–263, Zonal Councils) is indispensable for GS-II Polity.
On this page
- Conceptual Clarity — Federalism
- Art. 245 — Territorial Extent
- Art. 246 — Distribution of Powers
- Parliament's Power on State Subjects
- Art. 254 — Repugnancy
- Administrative Relations — Centre's Directions
- All India Services (Art. 312)
- Art. 263 — Inter-State Council
- Financial Relations — Overview
- Distribution of Tax Revenues
- Finance Commission (Art. 280)
- GST Council (Art. 279A)
- Inter-State Relations (Arts 261–263)
- Zonal Councils
- Prelims PYQs
- Mains PYQs
- 15-Minute Revision Box
Conceptual Clarity — Indian Federalism: Quasi-Federal with Unitary Bias
India is described as a "Union of States" (Art. 1) — not a federation. Dr. Ambedkar called it "federal in structure, unitary in spirit." The Constitution distributes powers through three lists (7th Schedule), yet gives Parliament power to encroach on State subjects under five exceptional circumstances. The Sarkaria Commission (1983–87) and Punchhi Commission (2007–10) examined Centre-State relations and recommended greater autonomy for states while preserving national unity.
- Federalism features: Written constitution, dual polity, division of powers, independent judiciary, bicameralism.
- Unitary features: Single citizenship, unified judiciary, All India Services, Parliament's power to alter state boundaries, Emergency provisions, residuary powers with Centre.
- Key principle: In conflict between Central and State law on Concurrent List — Central law prevails (Art. 254), subject to Presidential assent exception.
Part A: Legislative Relations (Arts 245–255)
1. Territorial Extent of Laws (Art. 245)
Art. 245 defines the geographic scope of legislative power:
- Parliament: May make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India — including Union Territories and areas not included in any state.
- State Legislature: May make laws only for the whole or any part of the state — its writ does not run beyond state boundaries.
- Extra-territorial legislation: Parliament can legislate with extra-territorial operation (i.e., laws affecting Indian citizens or their property/actions abroad). State legislatures generally cannot, unless there is a sufficient territorial nexus with the state.
2. Distribution of Legislative Powers — Art. 246 & 7th Schedule
Art. 246 read with the 7th Schedule distributes legislative subjects into three lists:
| List | Schedule | Subjects | Who Legislates | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Union List (List I) | 7th Schedule | 97 subjects (originally 97; now reduced due to amendments) | Parliament exclusively (Art. 246(1)) | Defence, Foreign affairs, Atomic energy, Railways, Banking, Insurance, Currency, Income tax, Corporation tax, Customs |
| State List (List II) | 7th Schedule | 66 subjects (originally 66) | State Legislature exclusively (Art. 246(3)) — subject to Parliament's special powers | Public order, Police, Public health, Agriculture, Land, Local government, State taxes (land revenue, entertainment tax pre-GST) |
| Concurrent List (List III) | 7th Schedule | 47 subjects (originally 47) | Both Parliament and State Legislature (Art. 246(2)) — Parliament prevails in repugnancy | Criminal law, Criminal procedure, Marriage, Bankruptcy, Education (after 42nd Amdt), Forests (after 42nd Amdt), Population control, Trade unions, Labour welfare |
Residuary Powers (Art. 248)
Subjects not enumerated in any of the three lists vest in Parliament exclusively. Parliament has residuary power to make laws on such subjects. Example: cyber crimes, space law, computer networks (not specifically listed when the Constitution was drafted).
3. Parliament's Power to Legislate on State Subjects
Under normal circumstances, Parliament cannot make laws on State List subjects. However, five special provisions allow Parliament to encroach on the State List:
| Article | Condition | Requirement | Duration |
|---|---|---|---|
| Art. 249 | National interest — Parliament to legislate on State List subject | Rajya Sabha passes resolution by 2/3 majority of members present and voting; remains in force for 1 year (renewable) | 1 year at a time (renewable by RS); ceases 6 months after resolution lapses |
| Art. 250 | Proclamation of National Emergency (Art. 352) in force | No special resolution needed — Parliament automatically gets power to legislate on State List | Ceases 6 months after Emergency ends |
| Art. 252 | Two or more state legislatures pass resolutions requesting Parliament to legislate | Resolution by state legislatures (simple majority); Parliament may then legislate for those consenting states only; other states can adopt the law later | No fixed limit; can be amended/repealed only by Parliament (not state legislature once adopted) |
| Art. 253 | Implementation of international treaties, agreements or conventions | No concurrence of states required — Parliament can legislate on any subject including State List to implement treaty obligations | No fixed limit |
| Art. 356 | President's Rule proclaimed in a state | Parliament can legislate for the state under President's Rule; state legislature's powers exercised by Parliament | Duration of President's Rule |
4. Repugnancy — Art. 254
When both Parliament and a State Legislature have legislated on the same Concurrent List subject, a conflict may arise. Art. 254 resolves this:
4.1 General Rule
- If a State law is repugnant (inconsistent) to a Central law on a Concurrent List subject: the Central law prevails.
- The State law is void to the extent of the inconsistency — not entirely void, only the conflicting portion.
4.2 Presidential Assent Exception (Art. 254(2))
- If a State law on a Concurrent List subject has been reserved by the Governor and received Presidential assent — the State law prevails in that state over the Central law, notwithstanding the repugnancy.
- BUT: Parliament can subsequently enact a law that overrides even such an assented State law. Parliament always has the last word.
- This provision gives states a window to pass innovative legislation — e.g., Kerala Rent Control Act, certain state labour laws.
4.3 Governor's Role — Reserving Bills for Presidential Assent (Art. 200/201)
- The Governor may reserve certain State bills for the consideration of the President — particularly bills that encroach on the Union List, impose restrictions on trade, or are repugnant to a Central law.
- The President may give or withhold assent, or return the bill for reconsideration.
- If the state legislature passes the bill again (with or without amendments), the President is not bound to give assent — unlike the President's position with Parliamentary bills after reconsideration.
Part B: Administrative Relations (Arts 256–263)
5. Direction by Centre to States (Art. 256)
Art. 256 establishes a key supervisory power of the Centre over state executive machinery:
- The executive power of every state shall be exercised so as to ensure compliance with the laws of Parliament and any existing laws applicable to the state.
- The Union may give directions to states as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose.
- Failure to comply with such directions can be a ground for imposition of President's Rule under Art. 365.
6. Art. 257 — State Not to Impede Union's Executive Power
- The executive power of every state shall be exercised so as not to impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the Union.
- The Union may give directions to states regarding:
- Construction and maintenance of means of communication declared to be of national or military importance.
- Measures to be taken for the protection of railways within the state.
- The cost of complying with such directions is borne by the Union (if it imposes extra burden on the state).
| Article | Subject | Key Provision |
|---|---|---|
| Art. 256 | Compliance with Central laws | State executive power must ensure compliance; Centre can give directions |
| Art. 257 | Not impeding Union power | State must not obstruct Union; Centre directs on communications/railways |
| Art. 257A | Deployment of armed forces | (Inserted by 42nd Amdt, repealed by 44th Amdt 1978) — Centre could deploy forces in a state to deal with grave situation of law and order |
| Art. 258 | Delegation to states | Centre can entrust functions to state with consent |
| Art. 258A | Delegation to Centre | Governor of a state may, with President's consent, entrust state functions to Centre |
| Art. 265 | No tax without law | Taxes levied only by authority of law — protects states and individuals |
7. All India Services (Art. 312)
The All India Services are a unique feature of Indian federalism — officers serve both the Centre and the states, acting as an integrative mechanism.
7.1 Constitutional Basis
- Art. 312 enables Parliament to create new All India Services common to the Union and the states if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by 2/3 majority declaring it necessary or expedient in the national interest.
- Currently three All India Services: IAS (Indian Administrative Service), IPS (Indian Police Service), and IFoS (Indian Forest Service — created 1966).
7.2 Key Features
- Recruited by Centre: Through UPSC-conducted Civil Services Examination.
- Cadre allocation: Officers are allocated to state cadres but can be deputed to Central government.
- Service conditions: Governed by Central rules — states cannot unilaterally alter service conditions of AIS officers posted in their state.
- Control: Disciplinary control is shared — state government for minor penalties; Central government for major penalties and final authority.
- Significance: Ensures uniform standards of administration; preserves national integration; state cannot capture administrative machinery; officers bring Central perspective to state administration.
8. Inter-State Council (Art. 263)
Art. 263 empowers the President to establish an Inter-State Council if it appears to the President that the public interest would be served. Once established, it:
- Inquires into and advises upon disputes which may have arisen between states.
- Investigates and discusses subjects of common interest to some or all states or to the Union and one or more states.
- Makes recommendations upon any such subject and in particular recommendations for the better coordination of policy and action.
8.1 Key Facts
- Established in 1990 on the recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission (which specifically recommended a permanent Inter-State Council).
- Chaired by the Prime Minister of India.
- Members include: Chief Ministers of all states and UTs with legislature; Lt. Governors of other UTs; 6 Cabinet Ministers of the Union nominated by PM.
- Advisory in nature — its recommendations are not binding. However, they carry significant political weight.
- A Standing Committee of the ISC also exists for continuous consultation and processing of matters before the ISC itself meets.
Part C: Financial Relations (Arts 264–293)
9. Constitutional Framework
Arts 264–293 deal with the financial relations between the Centre and the States. The basic principle is that the Centre controls most major taxes but must share revenue with states, who have limited tax-raising capacity but significant expenditure responsibilities.
Consolidated Funds (Art. 266)
- Consolidated Fund of India: All revenues received by the Union, all loans raised by the Union, and all money received in repayment of loans constitute this fund. No money can be appropriated from this fund except through Parliamentary appropriation.
- Consolidated Fund of a State: Corresponding state-level fund for state revenues and borrowings. Subject to the control of the state legislature.
Contingency Funds (Art. 267)
- Parliament and State Legislatures can establish Contingency Funds to enable advances for unforeseen expenditure, subject to subsequent parliamentary/legislative authorization.
10. Distribution of Tax Revenues
| Category | Levied by | Collected by | Retained by | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Category 1 | Centre (Union List) | Centre | Shared between Centre & States (Art. 270 — divisible pool) | Income tax (non-corporate), Corporation tax, GST (CGST portion shared via Finance Commission formula) |
| Category 2 | Centre (Union List) | States (where collected) | States keep entirely | Stamp duties (Art. 268), Excise duties on medical and toilet preparations (Art. 268) |
| Category 3 | Centre | Centre | Distributed to states only (surcharges & cesses) | Surcharge on income tax (not part of divisible pool); cesses like Education Cess, Swachh Bharat Cess — states receive none of these |
| Category 4 | States (State List) | States | States keep entirely | Land revenue, State excise (liquor), Professional tax (subject to Art. 276 limit), Entry tax, Entertainment tax (pre-GST), Agricultural income tax |
10.1 Grants-in-Aid (Art. 275)
- Parliament may provide grants-in-aid to states that are in need of assistance from the Consolidated Fund of India.
- Different amounts may be fixed for different states based on need.
- Also includes capital grants for development schemes and specific-purpose grants.
- States like Bihar, Odisha, MP, UP receive significant Art. 275 grants due to fiscal incapacity.
10.2 Discretionary Grants (Art. 282)
- The Union or a State may make any grants for any public purpose notwithstanding that the purpose is not one with respect to which Parliament or the State Legislature may make laws.
- This gives the Centre wide discretionary power to fund state schemes — used for Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) like PM KISAN, MGNREGA component, etc.
- States resent Art. 282 grants because they come with Central conditionalities — tension point in Centre-State financial relations.
11. Finance Commission (Art. 280)
11.1 Constitutional Basis
- Art. 280 requires the President to constitute a Finance Commission every 5 years (or earlier if necessary).
- Composition: Chairman + 4 other members (qualifications prescribed by Parliament).
- A quasi-judicial body — makes recommendations, not binding decisions. But by convention, Centre accepts FC recommendations.
11.2 Functions (Terms of Reference)
- Recommend distribution of net proceeds of taxes between Centre and States (vertical devolution).
- Recommend allocation among states (horizontal devolution) of respective shares of such proceeds.
- Recommend grants-in-aid to states in need (Art. 275).
- Any other matter referred by the President in the interests of sound finance.
- Recommend measures to augment the Consolidated Fund of a state to supplement the resources of panchayats and municipalities (after 73rd/74th Amendments).
11.3 Key Finance Commission Numbers
| FC | Period | States' Share (Vertical) | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11th FC | 2000–05 | 29.5% | First to recommend local body grants |
| 12th FC | 2005–10 | 30.5% | Recommended debt relief to fiscally responsible states |
| 13th FC | 2010–15 | 32% | Recommended grants to improve state fiscal position |
| 14th FC | 2015–20 | 42% (highest ever) | Y.V. Reddy Commission; large jump; reduced conditionalities on grants |
| 15th FC | 2021–26 | 41% | N.K. Singh Commission; 1% reduction due to J&K bifurcation; introduced performance-based criteria |
12. GST Council (Art. 279A)
12.1 Constitutional Basis
- Inserted by the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016 — which introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) regime.
- Art. 279A provides for the constitution of the GST Council as a joint forum of the Centre and states to make recommendations on GST.
12.2 Composition
- Chairperson: Union Finance Minister.
- Members: Union Minister of State for Finance; Finance Minister (or equivalent) of every state and UT with legislature.
12.3 Voting and Decision-Making
- Centre's vote: Weightage of 1/3 of total votes cast.
- States' combined vote: Weightage of 2/3 of total votes cast.
- Decision threshold: Requires 3/4 majority (75%) of weighted votes — meaning Centre + significant majority of states must agree. Neither Centre alone nor states alone can pass a resolution.
- This structure embodies cooperative federalism — Centre and states have shared authority over GST rates, exemptions, etc.
12.4 Functions
- Recommend taxes, cesses and surcharges to be subsumed in GST.
- Recommend goods and services exempted from GST.
- Recommend GST rates, including floor rates and band of rates.
- Recommend special provisions for specified states (Jammu & Kashmir, NE states, hilly states).
- Recommend date from which GST shall be levied on petroleum, crude, diesel, petrol, natural gas, ATF.
Part D: Inter-State Relations (Arts 261–263)
13. Full Faith and Credit Clause (Art. 261)
- Art. 261(1): Full faith and credit shall be given throughout India to public acts, records and judicial proceedings of the Union and of every state.
- Art. 261(2): The manner in which and conditions under which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved and the effect thereof determined shall be as Parliament may by law provide.
- Art. 261(3): Final judgments or orders delivered or passed by civil courts in any part of India shall be capable of execution anywhere within India according to law.
- This provision ensures that a judgment from a court in Maharashtra can be executed in Tamil Nadu — critical for commercial relations and individual rights across states.
14. Inter-State Water Disputes (Art. 262)
- Art. 262(1): Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of waters of, or in, any inter-state river or river valley.
- Art. 262(2): Parliament may by law provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint.
- This is a significant ouster of Supreme Court's jurisdiction — one of the few areas where Parliament can exclude the SC.
Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 (ISRWDA)
- Passed under Art. 262 — provides for tribunal adjudication of inter-state water disputes.
- Key tribunals: Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (1990; final award 2007; Supreme Court modified 2018); Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (1969; 2nd tribunal 2004); Ravi-Beas Water Tribunal (1986); Mahanadi Tribunal (2018); Godavari, Narmada Tribunals; Vansadhara Tribunal.
- Awards of tribunals are final and binding; published in the Gazette of India; given the same force as Supreme Court decrees.
- Criticism: Tribunals take too long (Cauvery tribunal took ~30 years); disputes recur even after awards; no permanent mechanism for monitoring compliance.
14. Zonal Councils & North-Eastern Council
14.1 Zonal Councils — Nature and Origin
- Extra-constitutional bodies — not mentioned in the Constitution.
- Created under Part III of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 — a parliamentary statute, not a constitutional amendment.
- Established to promote cooperation and coordination among states within a zone and between zonal states and the Centre.
14.2 Five Zonal Councils
| Zone | States Included | Headquarters |
|---|---|---|
| Northern Zonal Council | Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Chandigarh, Ladakh (UTs) | New Delhi |
| Central Zonal Council | Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh | Allahabad (Prayagraj) |
| Eastern Zonal Council | Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal | Kolkata |
| Western Zonal Council | Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu | Mumbai |
| Southern Zonal Council | Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Puducherry | Chennai |
14.3 Composition and Functions
- Chairman: Union Home Minister (chairs all five Zonal Councils — common chairmanship ensures national integration perspective).
- Vice-Chairman: Chief Ministers of states in the zone take turns on a rotation basis.
- Members: Chief Ministers + 2 other ministers from each state; Lt. Governor/Administrator of UTs in zone + 2 ministers.
- Functions: (i) Achieve emotional integration; (ii) help arrest development of interstate disputes; (iii) enable Centre and States to cooperate; (iv) rekindle the cooperative spirit; (v) plan and execute joint projects.
- Nature: Purely advisory — recommendations not binding. But provide an important political forum for dispute resolution before they become formal legal disputes.
14.4 North-Eastern Council
- A special statutory body for the development and coordination of the North-Eastern region.
- Created by the North-Eastern Council Act, 1971.
- Covers 8 states: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim (added 2002), and Tripura.
- Unlike Zonal Councils (advisory only), NEC has a broader developmental mandate — prepares regional development plans, coordinates policy, reviews implementation.
- Chaired by the Union Home Minister (same as Zonal Councils); HQ at Shillong.
15. Prelims PYQs
With reference to the 7th Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which of the following statements is/are correct? (1) Union List has 100 subjects. (2) State List has 66 subjects. (3) Concurrent List has 52 subjects.
Answer: (2) only — State List originally has 66 subjects; Union List has 97 (not 100); Concurrent List has 47 (not 52). These original numbers are most tested.
Under which Article of the Constitution can the Rajya Sabha, by a resolution supported by not less than two-thirds of its members present and voting, empower Parliament to legislate on a State subject in the national interest?
Answer: Article 249
Consider the following regarding the Finance Commission: (1) It is a permanent constitutional body. (2) It makes binding recommendations on tax devolution. (3) 15th FC recommended 41% devolution to states.
Answer: (3) only — FC is not permanent (constituted every 5 years); its recommendations are advisory (not binding), though conventionally accepted; 41% is correct for 15th FC.
Which of the following statements about the Zonal Councils is/are correct? (1) They are statutory bodies. (2) They are chaired by the President of India. (3) They include the North-Eastern states.
Answer: (1) only — Zonal Councils are statutory (States Reorganisation Act 1956), not constitutional; chaired by the Union Home Minister (not President); NE states have their own NEC, not part of any Zonal Council.
Under Article 262 of the Constitution, regarding inter-state water disputes: Parliament may exclude the jurisdiction of which court?
Answer: The Supreme Court — Art. 262(2) specifically allows Parliament to exclude SC jurisdiction over inter-state water disputes, which it has done through ISRWDA 1956.
The GST Council was established under which Constitutional provision and by which amendment?
Answer: Art. 279A, inserted by the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016. Voting: Centre = 1/3, States combined = 2/3; decisions require 3/4 majority.
The Sarkaria Commission was set up to examine: (A) Centre-State relations (B) Electoral reforms (C) Constitutional amendments (D) Judicial reforms.
Answer: (A) — Sarkaria Commission (1983–87) was set up specifically to examine Centre-State relations; submitted report in 1988 with 247 recommendations.
16. Mains PYQs
"The GST Council's functioning exemplifies cooperative federalism in India." Critically examine with reference to voting structure and the Supreme Court's 2022 ruling. (250 words)
Hint: Art. 279A structure (1/3 Centre + 2/3 States = 3/4 threshold); spirit of cooperative federalism — shared decision-making; Mohit Minerals 2022 — SC held recommendations advisory; implication: states can deviate; tension — Centre dominated initial GST decisions; example of cess on petroleum; state autonomy vs. uniformity; GST Council as model for other cooperative bodies; comparison with Inter-State Council; way forward: stronger dispute resolution within GST Council.
Examine the constitutional provisions relating to legislative relations between the Centre and States. How does the doctrine of repugnancy under Art. 254 balance Centre-State power? (250 words)
Hint: Arts 245–246, 7th Schedule (3 lists), Art. 248 (residuary); Art. 254 repugnancy — Central law prevails; Art. 254(2) exception — Presidential assent saves State law; Parliament's 5 exceptional powers (Arts 249, 250, 252, 253, 356); 42nd Amendment transferred Education and Forests to Concurrent List; recent examples of repugnancy — agricultural laws 2020–21 controversy; Art. 254 balance — states have first shot at concurrent legislation but Centre can always override; Presidential assent gives states some protection.
Inter-state water disputes have been a persistent source of conflict in Indian federalism. Critically evaluate the existing mechanisms under Art. 262. (250 words)
Hint: Art. 262 and ISRWDA 1956; SC jurisdiction excluded; major disputes — Cauvery (TN-Karnataka-Kerala-Puducherry), Krishna (AP-Karnataka-Maharashtra), Ravi-Beas (Punjab-Haryana-Rajasthan), Mahanadi (Odisha-Chhattisgarh); criticisms — tribunals take decades; no permanent implementation mechanism; political interference; awards not complied with; SC stepping in through Art. 32 despite exclusion; reform suggestions — standing river board, fixed timelines (ISRWDA 2002 amendment), Punchhi Commission recommendations; cooperative water governance.
"The Finance Commission is the key institution ensuring fiscal federalism in India." Discuss the role and limitations of the Finance Commission in the context of Centre-State financial relations. (250 words)
Hint: Art. 280; constitutional basis; functions — vertical and horizontal devolution; 15th FC: 41% devolution, 2011 census, demographic performance criterion; limitations — FC recommendations not binding; surcharges and cesses erode divisible pool (risen to ~20%); CSS with conditionalities undermine state autonomy; Art. 282 grants; overlapping with Planning Commission (abolished 2014, replaced by NITI Aayog — non-constitutional); demand for higher devolution from states; positive development: 14th FC increased devolution to 42%; GST compensation mechanism.
Analyse the tensions in Centre-State relations in India with reference to the recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission and their present-day relevance. (250 words)
Hint: Sarkaria Commission context (1983–87) — set up after Emergency excess, state demands for autonomy; 247 recommendations; key recs: ISC to be permanent and active (done 1990); Art. 356 sparingly (partial — Bommai case 1994); governors to be eminence (not implemented well); AIS continuation; greater financial devolution; Punchhi Commission 2007–10 — further recommendations; current tensions: CAA-NRC (states refusing implementation), farm laws withdrawal, GST compensation dispute, Governor-CM conflicts in opposition states; cooperative vs competitive federalism — NITI Aayog model; way forward: genuine consultative mechanisms.
17. 15-Minute Revision Box
Must-Remember — Centre-State & Inter-State Relations
- Union List (List I): 97 subjects — Parliament exclusively
- Concurrent List (List III): 47 subjects — Both; Centre prevails
- State List (List II): 66 subjects — States exclusively
- Residuary (Art. 248): Parliament only
- Art. 249 — RS resolution (2/3 majority), national interest, 1 year at a time
- Art. 250 — National Emergency (automatic)
- Art. 252 — Two+ states request Parliament
- Art. 253 — International treaty (no state consent needed)
- Art. 356 — President's Rule
- 14th FC (2015–20): 42% to states — highest ever
- 15th FC (2021–26): 41% to states
- Constituted every 5 years under Art. 280
- Advisory (not binding) — but conventionally accepted
- Art. 261 — Full Faith & Credit; court orders enforceable across India
- Art. 262 — Inter-State Water Disputes; SC jurisdiction excluded; ISRWDA 1956
- Art. 263 — Inter-State Council; President constitutes; PM chairs; 1990
- Statutory — States Reorganisation Act 1956 (not constitutional)
- 5 zones: North, South, East, West, Central
- Chaired by Union Home Minister (all five)
- Advisory in nature only
- NE states — separate NEC (North-Eastern Council Act 1971); 8 states
- 101st Amendment 2016
- Centre vote = 1/3; States combined = 2/3
- Decision threshold = 3/4 majority
- SC in Mohit Minerals 2022 — recommendations advisory, not binding