Regulatory Bodies — SEBI, TRAI, CCI, UGC, IRDAI & Co-operative Societies

Independent regulatory bodies form the backbone of India's sectoral governance — insulated from day-to-day political interference, armed with quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial and quasi-executive powers. The 97th Constitutional Amendment 2011 brought co-operative societies under a special constitutional framework. This topic is high-yield for both Prelims and Mains GS-II/GS-III.

UPSC Prelims · Mains GS-II & GS-III Laxmikanth Ch. 42–43 ~22 min read SEBI Act 1992 · Competition Act 2002 97th Amendment 2011

Conceptual Clarity — Regulatory vs Statutory vs Constitutional Bodies

Before diving into specific regulators, students must be clear about three overlapping categories that the UPSC routinely tests.

Feature	Constitutional Body	Statutory Body	Non-Statutory / Executive Body
Created by	Constitution itself (mention in Articles)	Act of Parliament or State Legislature	Executive resolution / Cabinet decision
Examples	CAG, UPSC, Election Commission, Finance Commission, CVC (Art. 148, 315, 324, 280, 148)	SEBI, CCI, TRAI, UGC, IRDAI, PFRDA, NHRC	NITI Aayog, National Human Rights Commission (advisory only), Planning Commission (abolished)
Amendment to abolish	Constitutional amendment (Art. 368)	Parliament repeals the Act	Executive order is sufficient
Independence	Highest — tenure protected by Constitution	High — as per enabling Act	Low — can be restructured overnight

Independent Regulatory Bodies (IRBs) are a special sub-category of statutory bodies. They are called "independent" because they are insulated from day-to-day ministerial/political interference — members have fixed tenures, cannot be easily removed, and enjoy functional autonomy.

Tri-power regulators — most IRBs wield three types of power simultaneously:

Quasi-legislative: Power to make rules, regulations, and guidelines (subordinate legislation).
Quasi-judicial: Power to adjudicate disputes, impose penalties, and pass orders after a hearing — like a court.
Quasi-executive: Power to investigate, inspect, search, seize, and enforce compliance.

UPSC Trap: "Regulatory body" is NOT synonymous with "Constitutional body." SEBI, CCI, TRAI etc. are all STATUTORY bodies (created by Parliament). None of them is a constitutional body. The UPSC frequently tests this distinction.

1. Part A: SEBI — Securities and Exchange Board of India

1.1 Establishment & Background

Established as a non-statutory executive body in 1988 under a Government of India resolution.
Given statutory status by the SEBI Act, 1992 — this is one of the most tested facts in Prelims.
HQ: Bandra Kurla Complex (BKC), Mumbai. Regional offices in Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Ahmedabad.
SEBI is a market regulator — it oversees securities markets to protect investor interests and promote development of the securities market.

1.2 Composition

Member	Appointed by
Chairman	Central Government
2 members from officers of Central Government	Central Government
1 member from the Reserve Bank of India	RBI
5 other members (at least 3 shall be whole-time members)	Central Government

1.3 Powers — The Three Quasi-Powers

Fig 32.1 — SEBI's three quasi-powers: quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial, quasi-executive (equilateral triangle model)

1.4 Functions of SEBI

Regulate stock exchanges (BSE, NSE) and securities markets — listing norms, trading rules, settlement systems.
Protect investor interests — investor education, grievance redressal, SEBI Complaints Redress System (SCORES).
Prevent insider trading — SEBI (Prohibition of Insider Trading) Regulations 2015.
Regulate Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) / Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) — registration, reporting, investment limits.
Regulate mutual funds — scheme categorisation, expense ratios, NAV calculation, distributor commissions.
Regulate credit rating agencies (CRISIL, ICRA, CARE etc.) — methodology, conflicts of interest.
Regulate portfolio managers, investment advisers, debenture trustees, merchant bankers.
Regulate collective investment schemes and alternative investment funds (AIFs).
Promote development of the securities market — technological infrastructure, market microstructure.

1.5 Key Current Affairs — SEBI

Electoral Bonds SC Judgment (Feb 2024): Supreme Court (5-bench) struck down the Electoral Bonds Scheme as unconstitutional. Directed SBI to submit bond details to the Election Commission. SEBI's role arose because donors included listed companies — issue of disclosure norms under SEBI regulations; market regulator's obligation to ensure material disclosures by listed entities.
Adani-Hindenburg Report (2023): SEBI was directed by SC to investigate Adani Group for alleged stock manipulation. Expert committee report found no regulatory failure. SEBI's investigation capacity and independence were publicly debated.
T+1 settlement cycle (2023): India moved to T+1 (trade + 1 day settlement) — among fastest in world — implemented by SEBI.

1.6 Appeals from SEBI

Orders of SEBI → Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) (quasi-judicial appellate body).
Orders of SAT → High Court (not Supreme Court directly, unless special leave petition).

Key distinction: SEBI was set up in 1988 but was merely an executive body with no statutory powers. It became a full statutory regulator only with the SEBI Act 1992 — this distinction between the year of establishment (1988) and the year of statutory status (1992) is a very frequent Prelims trap.

2. Part B: TRAI — Telecom Regulatory Authority of India

2.1 Establishment & Background

Established by the TRAI Act, 1997.
HQ: New Delhi.
Created to regulate the rapidly liberalising telecom sector post-1991 and to provide an independent regulator separate from the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) which was also a service provider (BSNL).
The original TRAI Act was significantly amended in 2000 — the amendment separated TRAI's recommendatory/regulatory functions from dispute adjudication and created a separate Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT).

2.2 Composition

Member	Detail
Chairman	Appointed by Central Government
Up to 2 full-time Members	Appointed by Central Government
Up to 2 part-time Members	Appointed by Central Government

2.3 Functions of TRAI

Regulate tariffs for telecom services — fix floors and ceilings; ensure tariff transparency.
Ensure quality of service — set benchmarks for call drops, data speeds, broadband quality.
Recommend licensing conditions to the Central Government (DoT) for telecom service providers.
Interconnection between service providers — determine terms and charges.
Spectrum management recommendations — TRAI recommends spectrum pricing and allocation; DoT/Cabinet decides.
Consumer protection — TRAI Telecom Consumer Protection Regulations, Do Not Disturb (DND) registry.
Broadcast and Cable TV regulation — TRAI regulates DTH, cable TV tariffs, channel packaging.

2.4 TDSAT — Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal

Established in 2000 under an amendment to the TRAI Act 1997.
Adjudicates disputes between a licensor (Central Govt) and a licensee, between two service providers, and between a service provider and a group of consumers.
Also adjudicates disputes and appeals against orders of TRAI.
Appeals from TDSAT go to the Supreme Court of India.

2.5 Key Issues

Net Neutrality Recommendations 2016: TRAI issued landmark recommendations in favour of net neutrality — against differential pricing of data services (zero-rating platforms like Facebook Free Basics were rejected). TRAI Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations 2016.
OTT (Over-The-Top) Regulation Debate: Whether WhatsApp, Netflix, Zoom, etc. should be regulated like telecom services. TRAI's 2020 consultation paper examined this. The debate centres on regulatory arbitrage — OTT players offer communication/content services without telecom licences or spectrum costs. TRAI has so far not recommended mandatory licensing of OTTs.
5G spectrum auction 2022: TRAI recommended reserve prices; Government held ₹1.5 lakh crore 5G auction in 2022.

Important: TRAI can only recommend on spectrum allocation and licensing — actual decisions are taken by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) and the Cabinet. This division of recommendatory vs decision-making power is frequently tested.

3. Part C: CCI — Competition Commission of India

3.1 Establishment & Background

Established by the Competition Act, 2002 — but became operational in 2009 (after notification of sections and appointment of members).
Replaced the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Commission established under MRTP Act 1969 — which was abolished.
HQ: New Delhi.
Created to foster a competitive market environment in post-liberalisation India, in line with WTO commitments.
The Competition (Amendment) Act 2023 introduced several changes including a deal value threshold for merger notifications.

3.2 Composition

Member	Detail
Chairperson	Appointed by Central Government
6 Members (minimum 1, maximum 6)	Appointed by Central Government

3.3 Key Provisions of Competition Act 2002

Fig 32.2 — CCI Competition Law Framework: Sections 3, 4, 5&6 and the investigation/appeal process

Key Concepts

Section 3 — Anti-competitive agreements: Agreements between enterprises that cause or are likely to cause an Appreciable Adverse Effect on Competition (AAEC) in India are void. Horizontal agreements (between competitors) — cartels, bid-rigging — are presumed to have AAEC. Vertical agreements require rule-of-reason analysis.
Section 4 — Abuse of Dominant Position: Having a dominant position is NOT illegal — but ABUSING it is. A dominant position means an enterprise can operate independently of competitive forces. Abuses include predatory pricing, imposing unfair conditions, limiting technical development, and denying market access.
Sections 5 & 6 — Combinations: Mergers, acquisitions, amalgamations above certain asset/turnover thresholds require CCI's prior approval. Test: whether the combination causes AAEC in India.
Director General (DG): When CCI finds a prima facie case, it directs the DG (an officer appointed under the Act) to investigate. DG's report forms the basis of CCI's final order.
Penalties: CCI can impose penalties of up to 10% of average turnover for the preceding 3 years. For cartels, penalty can be up to 3 times profit for each year of the cartel's continuation.

3.4 Key Cases

Case	Year	Outcome
CCI vs Google India (Android)	2022	Google fined ₹1,337.76 crore for abusing dominant position in Android mobile ecosystem — mandatory pre-installation of Google apps (Play Store, Chrome, Search) held as anti-competitive
CCI vs WhatsApp (Privacy Policy)	2021	CCI took suo motu cognizance of WhatsApp's 2021 privacy policy update (take it or leave it) — found WhatsApp abused dominant position in messaging apps; directed investigation
CCI vs Maruti Suzuki	2021	Maruti fined ₹200 crore for resale price maintenance (fixing minimum price dealers could offer to consumers) — Section 3(4)(e) vertical agreement

3.5 Appeals

CCI orders → NCLAT (National Company Law Appellate Tribunal)
NCLAT orders → Supreme Court of India

UPSC Trap: Competition Act was passed in 2002 but CCI became operational only in 2009. Do not confuse the year of legislation with the year of operationalisation. Questions often test this gap.

4. Part D: UGC — University Grants Commission

4.1 Establishment & Background

Established by the UGC Act, 1956 — based on the recommendations of the Radhakrishnan Commission (University Education Commission 1948–49) and Mudaliar Commission (1952–53).
HQ: New Delhi. Has regional offices in Hyderabad, Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bangalore.
UGC is a statutory body under the Ministry of Education (formerly HRD Ministry).

4.2 Composition

Chairman (appointed by Central Government)
Vice-Chairman (appointed by Central Government)
Members — not more than 12 (appointed by Central Government from persons with knowledge of agriculture, commerce, forestry, medicine, law etc.)

4.3 Functions of UGC

Coordinate and determine standards of university education in consultation with universities and state governments.
Grant funds to universities and colleges for development of higher education.
Recognise universities — only institutions recognized by UGC are entitled to receive UGC grants; students of unrecognised universities face disadvantages in employment and further education.
Declare Deemed Universities (under Section 3 of UGC Act) — only UGC can recommend to the Central Government that an institution be granted "Deemed University" status under Art. 12 of UGC Act. This is a very frequently tested fact.
Lay down minimum standards for courses, examinations, and appointments in universities.
Advise the Central and State Governments on measures necessary for improvement of university education.
Maintain a list of fake universities and unrecognised institutions.

4.4 Key Issue — NEP 2020 and HECI

The National Education Policy 2020 proposed replacing UGC (and other regulators like AICTE, NCTE) with a single umbrella body called the Higher Education Commission of India (HECI).
HECI would have four verticals: National Higher Education Regulatory Council (NHERC), General Education Council (GEC), Higher Education Grants Council (HEGC), and National Accreditation Council (NAC).
As of 2024, the transition to HECI has not been legislatively completed — UGC continues to function.
The UGC (Minimum Standards and Procedure for Award of PhD Degree) Regulations 2022 revised PhD requirements.

Key Fact: UGC is the ONLY body in India that can declare an institution a "Deemed University." The recommendation is made by UGC to the Ministry of Education, and the final notification is issued by the Central Government. Misuse of deemed university status has been a recurring governance issue.

5. Part E: IRDAI — Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India

5.1 Establishment & Background

Established by the IRDAI Act, 1999 — based on the recommendations of the Malhotra Committee (1993).
HQ: Hyderabad (relocated from Delhi). This is frequently tested — IRDAI is the only major financial regulator headquartered outside Delhi-Mumbai.
Regulates both life insurance and non-life (general) insurance sectors.

5.2 Composition

Member	Detail
Chairman	Appointed by Central Government
5 whole-time members	Appointed by Central Government
4 part-time members	Appointed by Central Government

5.3 Functions of IRDAI

Regulate and promote the insurance and reinsurance business in India.
Protect the interests of policyholders — fair treatment, timely settlement of claims, adequate disclosures.
Issue licences (Certificates of Registration) to insurance companies, insurance agents, brokers, surveyors.
Approve insurance products — every new insurance policy/product requires IRDAI's approval or filing.
Specify the code of conduct for insurance intermediaries.
Regulate investment of funds by insurance companies — asset-liability management, solvency margin.
Promote insurance penetration and density in India — financial inclusion through insurance.

5.4 Key Legislation — FDI in Insurance

Amendment	FDI Limit in Insurance
Original IRDAI Act 1999	26%
Insurance Laws (Amendment) Act 2015	Raised to 49%
Insurance Laws (Amendment) Act 2021	Raised to 74%

UPSC Trap: The current FDI limit in insurance is 74% (after the 2021 Amendment). Many students still quote 49% (2015 figure) or 26% (original). Always use the 2021 figure: 74%.

5.5 Appeals

Disputes can go to the Insurance Ombudsman (for consumers) or relevant High Court / Supreme Court for regulatory orders.
IRDAI orders challenged in High Court with jurisdiction over Hyderabad (Telangana HC).

6. Part F: PFRDA — Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority

6.1 Establishment

Established by the PFRDA Act, 2013 — though PFRDA was set up as an interim non-statutory body in 2003.
HQ: New Delhi.
Regulates the pension sector in India — particularly the National Pension System (NPS) and Atal Pension Yojana (APY).

6.2 National Pension System (NPS)

NPS was introduced on 1 January 2004 for all new Central Government employees (except armed forces) — replacing the Old Pension Scheme (OPS) which was a defined benefit scheme.
NPS extended to all Indian citizens (voluntary) from May 2009 (NPS-Lite / Swavalamban).
NPS is a defined contribution scheme — employee + employer contribute; corpus invested in market-linked instruments (equity, bonds, government securities).
Retirement corpus depends on market performance — unlike OPS where government guaranteed a fixed percentage of last drawn salary.
In 2024, the Central Government introduced the Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) effective April 2025 — a hybrid scheme ensuring a minimum assured pension (50% of average basic pay of last 12 months for 25+ years of service) while retaining NPS architecture.

6.3 Atal Pension Yojana (APY)

Launched 2015 — targeted at unorganised sector workers. Guaranteed pension of ₹1,000–₹5,000/month at age 60.
Government co-contributes for eligible subscribers.

Key distinction: PFRDA is a statutory body (created by PFRDA Act 2013). It regulates NPS but does NOT manage pension funds directly — it appoints Pension Fund Managers (private and public) who manage the corpus. NPS Trust holds the assets.

7. Part G: 97th Constitutional Amendment 2011 — Co-operative Societies

7.1 What the 97th Amendment Added

The Constitution (Ninety-Seventh Amendment) Act, 2011 made three major changes to the Constitution:

Addition 1: Article 19(1)(c)

The right to form "co-operative societies" was expressly added to the existing right to form associations/unions under Art. 19(1)(c) — making the right to form co-operative societies a fundamental right.

Addition 2: Article 43B (DPSP)

Added to Part IV (Directive Principles): "The State shall endeavour to promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic control and professional management of co-operative societies."

Addition 3: Part IXB (Arts. 243ZH to 243ZT)

An entirely new Part IXB was inserted — containing provisions for Co-operative Societies. Key provisions:

Art. 243ZI: States shall provide for incorporation, regulation and winding up of co-operative societies (except multi-state co-operative societies).
Art. 243ZJ: Board of directors — number not exceeding 21 members; reservation for SC/ST and women.
Art. 243ZK: Elections to the board of directors — to be conducted before expiry of term.
Art. 243ZL: Supersession of board — not for more than 6 months (an administrator can be appointed for max 6 months).
Art. 243ZM: Audit — mandatory audit of accounts of co-operative societies.
Art. 243ZN: Annual General Body meeting — to be convened within 6 months of close of financial year.
Art. 243ZO: Right of members to get information.
Art. 243ZT: Continuation of existing laws — existing laws on co-operatives can continue for 1 year before being brought in conformity.

7.2 Supreme Court Judgment 2021 — Rajendra N. Shah v. Union of India

Critical SC Ruling: A 5-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court in Rajendra N. Shah v. Union of India (2021) partially struck down the 97th Constitutional Amendment. Key holdings:

Part IXB provisions relating to multi-state co-operative societies were struck down as unconstitutional — Parliament has no power under Art. 368 to make laws relating to state subjects (co-operative societies is a State List subject — Entry 32, List II) without obtaining ratification from at least half the state legislatures under Art. 368(2). Since no such ratification was obtained, Part IXB is ultra vires to the extent it applies to co-operative societies of a single state.
However, provisions relating to multi-state co-operative societies (a Union subject — Entry 44, List I) were upheld as they fall within Parliament's legislative competence.
Wait — the SC actually held the reverse: Part IXB relating to single-state co-operative societies was struck down for lack of state ratification; provisions dealing with multi-state co-operatives were upheld.
Correct position: Single-state co-operative society provisions of Part IXB were struck down (as states weren't consulted); multi-state co-operative society provisions survive.

Note on Multi-State Co-operative Societies: Multi-State Co-operative Societies Act 2002 governs co-operatives that operate in more than one state (e.g., AMUL is a cooperative but different structure). Multi-state co-operatives fall under Entry 44, List I — Union subject. Hence Parliament can regulate them; Part IXB provisions for multi-state co-ops were upheld by SC 2021.

7.3 Co-operative Societies — Constitutional Scheme

Item	Detail
Entry 32, List II (State List)	Incorporation, regulation and winding up of corporations other than those specified in List I, and universities; unincorporated trading etc. (includes single-state co-operative societies)
Entry 44, List I (Union List)	Incorporation, regulation and winding up of corporations, whether trading or not, including banking, insurance and financial corporations but not including universities — includes multi-state co-operative societies
Art. 19(1)(c) after 97th Amendment	Right to form co-operative societies — Fundamental Right
Art. 43B after 97th Amendment	DPSP — State shall promote voluntary, autonomous co-operative societies
Part IXB — current status	Single-state provisions struck down; multi-state provisions upheld (SC 2021)

8. Regulatory Bodies — Quick Comparison Table

Fig 32.3 — Regulatory Bodies at a Glance: establishment, sector, HQ, and appeals hierarchy

Body	Established	Enabling Act	HQ	Sector	Appeals Body
SEBI	1988 (exec.); statutory 1992	SEBI Act 1992	Mumbai (BKC)	Securities Markets	SAT → High Court
TRAI	1997	TRAI Act 1997	New Delhi	Telecom, Broadcasting	TDSAT → Supreme Court
CCI	2002 (Act); operational 2009	Competition Act 2002	New Delhi	Competition / Antitrust	NCLAT → Supreme Court
UGC	1956	UGC Act 1956	New Delhi	Higher Education	High Court / Supreme Court
IRDAI	1999 (Act); operational 2000	IRDAI Act 1999	Hyderabad	Insurance	HC (Hyderabad) / Ombudsman
PFRDA	2003 (interim); statutory 2013	PFRDA Act 2013	New Delhi	Pension (NPS, APY)	Pension Appellate Authority

9. Prelims PYQs

Prelims 2018

With reference to the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), consider the following statements: (1) SEBI was established in 1988 as a non-statutory body. (2) SEBI was given statutory status by the SEBI Act, 1992. Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Answer: Both 1 and 2 — SEBI was set up in 1988 as an executive body without statutory powers; the SEBI Act 1992 gave it full statutory authority including quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial and quasi-executive powers.

Prelims 2020

Under Section 4 of the Competition Act 2002, which of the following amounts to abuse of dominant position?
Answer: Section 4 covers abuse of dominant position — this includes: imposing unfair or discriminatory conditions in purchase/sale of goods or services; predatory pricing (below cost to eliminate competition); limiting production or technical development; denying market access; leveraging dominant position in one market to enter or protect another market.

Prelims 2022

With reference to the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT), which of the following statements is correct?
Answer: TDSAT was established in 2000 under an amendment to the TRAI Act 1997. It adjudicates disputes between a licensor (Central Govt) and licensee, between two service providers, and between a service provider and consumers. Appeals from TDSAT go to the Supreme Court (not High Court — important distinction from SAT under SEBI where appeal goes to HC).

Prelims 2019

Which of the following bodies is empowered to declare an institution a "Deemed University" in India?
Answer: UGC (University Grants Commission) — under Section 3 of the UGC Act 1956, UGC recommends to the Central Government that an institution be declared a "Deemed University" (Deemed to be University). The final notification is issued by the Ministry of Education. UGC is the ONLY body with this power.

Prelims 2023

With reference to IRDAI and the insurance sector in India, what is the current FDI limit in insurance after the Insurance Laws (Amendment) Act 2021?
Answer: 74% — the Insurance Laws (Amendment) Act 2021 raised FDI limit in insurance from 49% (set by the 2015 Amendment) to 74%. The original limit when IRDAI was established was 26%. This progressive increase must be memorised in order: 26% → 49% (2015) → 74% (2021).

Prelims 2021

The Constitution (Ninety-seventh Amendment) Act, 2011 added which of the following to the Constitution?
Answer: Three additions — (1) the right to form co-operative societies was added to Art. 19(1)(c); (2) Art. 43B was added as a new DPSP directing the State to promote voluntary, autonomous functioning of co-operative societies; (3) Part IXB (Arts. 243ZH to 243ZT) was added laying down detailed provisions for democratic functioning of co-operative societies (elections, term of office, board size, supersession limit).

Prelims 2024

With reference to the powers of the Securities and Exchange Board of India, which of the following represents all three categories of power exercised by SEBI?
Answer: SEBI exercises (1) Quasi-legislative power — it can make regulations under the SEBI Act (e.g., Insider Trading Regulations, LODR Regulations); (2) Quasi-judicial power — it can adjudicate violations, hold hearings, and impose monetary penalties; (3) Quasi-executive power — it can investigate, inspect books of accounts, conduct search and seizure operations. This tri-power nature makes SEBI a "super-regulator" and is constitutionally valid as held by the Supreme Court.

Prelims 2025

In 2022, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) imposed a penalty on Google. The penalty was related to which of the following?
Answer: CCI fined Google ₹1,337.76 crore in October 2022 for abusing its dominant position in the Android mobile device ecosystem. CCI found that Google imposed mandatory pre-installation of its apps (Google Play Store, Google Chrome, Google Search, YouTube) on Android device manufacturers (OEMs) through the Mobile Application Distribution Agreement (MADA) and Anti-Fragmentation Agreement (AFA) — which foreclosed the market for rival apps and prevented device makers from using modified Android forks.

10. Mains PYQs

Mains GS-II 2019

"Independent regulatory bodies are the fourth branch of government." Examine the statement with reference to SEBI and CCI. (250 words)

Approach: Explain the "fourth branch" concept — beyond legislature, executive, judiciary; IRBs fill the gap where technical regulation requires insulation from political pressure. SEBI: established 1988, statutory 1992; three quasi-powers make it legislative + judicial + executive simultaneously — a unique constitutional position; SAT as appellate forum; role in electoral bonds 2024 controversy. CCI: competition regulator; prohibits cartels (S.3), abuse of dominance (S.4), vets mergers (S.5-6); Director General as investigating arm; NCLAT appeal; Google/WhatsApp cases. Common features: fixed tenure, removal only by Presidential order on inquiry, technical expertise, sectoral autonomy. Concerns: regulatory capture, lack of parliamentary accountability, turf wars between regulators (SEBI-RBI overlap in some instruments). Conclusion: IRBs are necessary but must be paired with transparency, accountability to Parliament's public accounts/estimates committees, and clear appellate structure.

Mains GS-III 2021

"The Competition Commission of India has emerged as an important regulatory body in ensuring fair markets." Examine its role in preventing anti-competitive practices in India. (250 words)

Approach: Background — replaced MRTP Commission; Competition Act 2002 operational 2009. Three pillars: (1) Anti-competitive agreements (S.3) — cartelisation, bid-rigging, vertical restraints — AAEC test; (2) Abuse of dominance (S.4) — predatory pricing, tying, refusal to deal — CCI vs Google (Android) ₹1,337 crore; CCI vs Maruti (resale price maintenance) ₹200 crore; (3) Combination regulation (S.5-6) — prior approval for large M&As — AAEC test. DG investigation mechanism. NCLAT appeal. Challenges: lengthy proceedings, limited resources to investigate complex tech markets, jurisdictional overlap with sectoral regulators (TRAI for telecom, SEBI for securities), digital market regulation gaps, international co-ordination. Competition Amendment Act 2023: deal value threshold for tech mergers, settlement mechanism, commitments process. Way forward: dedicated digital markets division, fast-track timelines, stronger cooperation with international competition authorities (ICN, OECD).

Mains GS-II 2022

"The 97th Constitutional Amendment relating to co-operative societies was partially struck down by the Supreme Court." Analyse the judgment and its implications. (250 words)

Approach: Background — 97th Amendment 2011: three additions (Art. 19(1)(c), Art. 43B, Part IXB). Rajendra N. Shah v. Union of India (SC 2021): 5-judge Constitution Bench. Key holding: Part IXB relating to single-state co-operative societies was struck down — reason: co-operative societies is a State List subject (Entry 32, List II); any constitutional amendment curtailing state powers requires ratification by at least half the state legislatures under Art. 368(2); Parliament did not obtain state ratification before enacting 97th Amendment; hence Part IXB is unconstitutional to that extent. Multi-state co-operative societies (Entry 44, List I — Union subject): Part IXB provisions for these upheld. Implications: (1) State co-operative laws continue to govern single-state co-ops; (2) State autonomy over co-operatives preserved; (3) Art. 43B and Art. 19(1)(c) additions upheld — Fundamental Right and DPSP intact; (4) Federalism reinforced — Parliament cannot unilaterally amend state legislative domain. Analysis: judgment reinforces basic structure doctrine (federalism); highlights Parliamentary overreach; co-operative sector's economic importance (rural credit, AMUL, sugar co-ops). Way forward: Parliament should re-introduce amendment with proper state ratification if intent is to set national standards for co-operatives.

Mains GS-III 2020

"Discuss the role of TRAI in regulating the telecom sector. What are the challenges it faces in regulating OTT (Over-The-Top) platforms?" (250 words)

Approach: TRAI's role: tariff regulation (floor/ceiling pricing to prevent predatory pricing by dominant operators — Jio example); quality of service benchmarks (call drop norms); spectrum pricing recommendations (5G auction ₹1.5 lakh crore 2022); consumer protection (DND, TRAI MyCall app); net neutrality enforcement (2016 regulations prohibiting discriminatory data pricing — blocked Facebook's Free Basics); broadcast regulation (DTH, cable tariff order). TDSAT as dispute resolution forum (licensor-licensee, inter-operator, consumer disputes). Challenges in OTT regulation: (a) Definitional ambiguity — OTTs provide communication services (WhatsApp, Zoom) and content (Netflix, Hotstar) without telecom licences; (b) Regulatory arbitrage — OTTs bypass spectrum costs, universal service obligations, lawful interception requirements that telcos bear; (c) Jurisdictional complexity — OTTs are global (Netflix, WhatsApp) — Indian regulation has limited extraterritorial reach; (d) Balancing innovation vs. regulation — heavy-handed regulation could stifle the digital ecosystem; (e) TRAI's recommendatory role vs. DoT's decision-making — TRAI cannot directly licence OTTs. Way forward: light-touch regulation; focus on anti-competitive conduct (refer to CCI); mandatory registration without full licensing; data localisation requirements; international bilateral regulatory frameworks.

11. Revision Box — 4 UPSC Traps on Regulatory Bodies

Must-Remember — Regulatory Bodies Traps

Trap 1 — SEBI Year:

SEBI established 1988 as a non-statutory executive body (by Government resolution, no statutory powers).
SEBI made STATUTORY only in 1992 by the SEBI Act 1992 — got quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial, quasi-executive powers.
Always check: the question may say "SEBI established in 1992" — technically wrong (set up 1988; statutory 1992).

Trap 2 — CCI Operational Year:

Competition Act was passed in 2002.
CCI became operational only in 2009 — after final notifications and appointment of members.
7-year gap between Act and operationalisation — questions may ask "when did CCI start functioning" → 2009, not 2002.

Trap 3 — 97th Amendment Co-operative Societies:

SC 2021 (Rajendra N. Shah) struck down Part IXB provisions for single-state co-operative societies.
Reason: No state ratification as required under Art. 368(2) for amendment affecting state list subjects.
Multi-state co-operative society provisions of Part IXB were upheld (Union List subject).
Art. 43B (DPSP) and amendment to Art. 19(1)(c) were NOT struck down — they remain valid.

Trap 4 — IRDAI FDI Limit:

Original (1999): 26% FDI in insurance.
After 2015 Amendment: 49% FDI.
After 2021 Amendment: 74% FDI — current limit.
Questions may cite the old 49% figure as current — it is NOT. The 2021 Amendment raised it to 74%.

Additional Must-Knows: (1) IRDAI HQ is Hyderabad — NOT Delhi or Mumbai — it is the only major financial regulator not in Delhi/Mumbai. (2) UGC is the ONLY body that can declare "Deemed Universities" — not AICTE, not Ministry directly. (3) CCI penalties: up to 10% of average turnover for 3 years (Section 27); for cartels: up to 3x profit per year. (4) TRAI's TDSAT appeals go to Supreme Court directly; but SEBI's SAT appeals go to High Court — not Supreme Court.

Regulator	Appeal to
SEBI	SAT → HC
TRAI / TDSAT	TDSAT → SC
CCI	NCLAT → SC
UGC	HC / SC
IRDAI	HC (Hyd) / Ombudsman

Provision	Status
Art. 19(1)(c)	Valid
Art. 43B (DPSP)	Valid
Part IXB — single-state	Struck down
Part IXB — multi-state	Upheld

Body	HQ
SEBI (1992)	Mumbai (BKC)
TRAI (1997)	New Delhi
CCI (op. 2009)	New Delhi
UGC (1956)	New Delhi
IRDAI (1999)	Hyderabad
PFRDA (2013)	New Delhi

Regulatory Bodies — SEBI, TRAI, CCI, UGC, IRDAI & Co-operative Societies

On this page

Conceptual Clarity — Regulatory vs Statutory vs Constitutional Bodies

1. Part A: SEBI — Securities and Exchange Board of India

1.1 Establishment & Background

1.2 Composition

1.3 Powers — The Three Quasi-Powers

1.4 Functions of SEBI

1.5 Key Current Affairs — SEBI

1.6 Appeals from SEBI

2. Part B: TRAI — Telecom Regulatory Authority of India

2.1 Establishment & Background

2.2 Composition

2.3 Functions of TRAI

2.4 TDSAT — Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal

2.5 Key Issues

3. Part C: CCI — Competition Commission of India

3.1 Establishment & Background

3.2 Composition

3.3 Key Provisions of Competition Act 2002

Key Concepts

3.4 Key Cases

3.5 Appeals

4. Part D: UGC — University Grants Commission

4.1 Establishment & Background

4.2 Composition

4.3 Functions of UGC

4.4 Key Issue — NEP 2020 and HECI

5. Part E: IRDAI — Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India

5.1 Establishment & Background

5.2 Composition

5.3 Functions of IRDAI

5.4 Key Legislation — FDI in Insurance

5.5 Appeals

6. Part F: PFRDA — Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority

6.1 Establishment

6.2 National Pension System (NPS)

6.3 Atal Pension Yojana (APY)

7. Part G: 97th Constitutional Amendment 2011 — Co-operative Societies

7.1 What the 97th Amendment Added

Addition 1: Article 19(1)(c)

Addition 2: Article 43B (DPSP)

Addition 3: Part IXB (Arts. 243ZH to 243ZT)

7.2 Supreme Court Judgment 2021 — Rajendra N. Shah v. Union of India

7.3 Co-operative Societies — Constitutional Scheme

8. Regulatory Bodies — Quick Comparison Table

9. Prelims PYQs

10. Mains PYQs

11. Revision Box — 4 UPSC Traps on Regulatory Bodies

Must-Remember — Regulatory Bodies Traps