High Courts & Subordinate Courts

High Courts are the apex courts of each state — the pivot of India's judicial architecture between the Supreme Court and the district judiciary. Understanding HC establishment, composition, multi-layered jurisdiction (especially Art. 226 writ power vs SC's Art. 32), supervisory authority under Art. 227, and the subordinate court structure is critical for GS-II. Lok Adalats and Gram Nyayalayas are frequent Prelims targets.

UPSC Prelims · Mains GS-II Laxmikanth Ch. 26–27 ~20 min read Arts 214–231, 233–237 25 High Courts in India

Conceptual Clarity
Establishment & Composition
Appointment & Qualifications
Tenure, Removal & Transfer
Independence Safeguards
HC Jurisdiction — 5 Types
Art. 226 Writ Jurisdiction — Deep Dive
Art. 227 Supervisory Jurisdiction
Common High Courts
Subordinate Courts (Arts 233–237)
Structure of Subordinate Courts
Lok Adalats & Gram Nyayalayas
SC vs HC — Comparison Table
Prelims PYQs
Mains PYQs
15-Minute Revision Box

Conceptual Clarity — Where High Courts Fit

India has a single integrated judiciary — unlike the dual court system of the USA. The Supreme Court sits at the apex; below it are 25 High Courts (one per state or a common HC for two or more states); below them are District Courts and lower courts. High Courts are the connecting link between the SC and the subordinate courts.

HC vs SC writ power: SC under Art. 32 can issue writs only for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. HC under Art. 226 can issue writs for enforcement of any legal right — wider scope.
HC as guardian: Under Art. 227, the HC exercises superintendence over ALL courts and tribunals in its territorial jurisdiction — the HC is the constitutional supervisor of the subordinate judiciary.
Retirement age: HC judges retire at 62 years; SC judges at 65 years — one of the most tested facts.

1. Establishment & Composition (Arts 214–216)

1.1 Establishment (Art. 214)

Art. 214 provides that every state shall have a High Court. Parliament may by law establish a common High Court for two or more states (or a state and a Union Territory) under Art. 231. Currently India has 25 High Courts.

High Courts are courts of record (Art. 215) — their judgments have evidentiary value and they can punish for contempt of court.
The principal seat of each HC is fixed; Parliament can establish benches at other locations within the state.
HC judges can also sit at places other than the principal seat — Circuit Benches.

1.2 Composition (Art. 216)

Every High Court shall consist of a Chief Justice and such other judges as the President may, from time to time, deem it necessary to appoint. The Constitution does not prescribe a fixed numerical strength — unlike the SC where there is a statutory ceiling. Strength is determined by the workload and is expanded by Presidential order on collegium recommendation.

Key distinction: The Constitution does not fix the number of HC judges (unlike SC where Parliament fixed strength at 34 including CJI by statute). HC strength is purely at the discretion of the President (in practice, on collegium recommendation).

2. Appointment & Qualifications (Art. 217)

2.1 Appointment (Art. 217(1))

Every HC judge (including Chief Justice) is appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal, after consultation with:

The Chief Justice of India (CJI)
The Governor of the state
The Chief Justice of the High Court concerned (except when appointing the CJ of that HC)

In practice, the collegium system operates: the Supreme Court collegium (CJI + 2 senior-most SC judges for HC appointments) recommends names; the state collegium (HC CJ + 2 senior-most HC judges) also participates. The President is bound by the collegium's recommendation (Second Judges Case 1993, Third Judges Case 1998).

2.2 Qualifications (Art. 217(2))

A person is eligible for appointment as HC judge if they:

Are a citizen of India, AND
Have been a judge of a High Court (including a common HC) for at least 10 years, OR
Have been an Advocate of a High Court for at least 10 years

UPSC Trap — Distinguished Jurist: Art. 124(3) for the Supreme Court includes a third qualification — "distinguished jurist." This category is NOT available for HC judges under Art. 217(2). A distinguished jurist cannot be directly appointed as an HC judge. This distinction is very frequently asked in Prelims.

2.3 Appointment of HC Chief Justice

The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President on the recommendation of the CJI and the Governor. By convention, the senior-most judge of that HC is appointed as its CJ (seniority principle). However, this convention has been broken at times, leading to controversy.

3. Tenure, Removal & Transfer

3.1 Tenure — Retirement at Age 62

An HC judge holds office until they attain the age of 62 years (Art. 217(1)). They may resign by writing to the President. The President determines questions relating to the age of a judge after consulting the CJI (Art. 217(3)).

SC judges retire at 65 — a difference of 3 years. This age difference means many retired HC judges are eligible for elevation to the SC or for appointment to tribunals.

3.2 Removal (Art. 217(1) proviso)

An HC judge can be removed only by impeachment — same process as SC judges under Art. 124(4):

An address by each House of Parliament supported by a special majority (majority of total membership + 2/3 of members present and voting) must be presented to the President.
Grounds: proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
The Judges (Inquiry) Act 1968 prescribes the procedure — a three-member committee (1 SC judge, 1 HC CJ, 1 distinguished jurist) investigates.
A judge may also be removed by the President on grounds of incapacity after inquiry by the SC.

Note: No HC judge has ever been successfully impeached in India's history. The only judge impeached was Justice V. Ramaswami of Punjab & Haryana HC (later elevated to SC) — the motion failed in 1993 because the ruling party abstained from voting.

3.3 Transfer of HC Judges (Art. 222)

The President can transfer a HC judge (including the Chief Justice) from one HC to another after consultation with the CJI. The judge is entitled to a compensatory allowance in addition to their salary.

This is a contentious provision — transfers have at times been used as a form of punitive transfer against judges who gave inconvenient judgments.
Supreme Court held in Union of India v. Sankalchand Seth (1977): transfer must be in public interest, not punitive; CJI's opinion is primacy.
Post-collegium system: transfers are now processed through the SC collegium — providing a safeguard against executive misuse.

4. Independence Safeguards

The Constitution provides several safeguards to ensure the independence of HC judges:

Safeguard	Provision	Significance
Security of tenure	Art. 217(1) — removed only by impeachment	Cannot be dismissed arbitrarily by executive
Salary from Consolidated Fund	Art. 202(3) — salaries not voted by state legislature	Legislature cannot cut salary as a pressure tactic
Conduct not discussable in legislature	Art. 211	State legislature cannot discuss or criticise judicial conduct
Ban on practice after retirement	Art. 220 — cannot practice in any court in India "within whose jurisdiction he has exercised jurisdiction as a Judge"	Prevents bias toward potential future clients; however can practice in SC and other HCs
Salaries charged on Consolidated Fund	Art. 202(3)(d)	Not subject to legislative vote — insulated from political pressure
Collegium system for appointment	Practice post-1993 (Second Judges Case)	Reduces executive interference in appointments
No diminution of service conditions	Art. 221 — salary, allowances cannot be varied to disadvantage after appointment	Protects economic independence

Art. 220 — Practice after retirement: An HC judge can practice in the SC and in other HCs — only barred from practicing before the HC of which they were a judge. This is narrower than the popular misconception that judges cannot practice at all after retirement.

5. Jurisdiction of High Courts — 5 Types

Fig 21.1 — High Court's five types of jurisdiction under the Constitution

5.1 Original Jurisdiction

The HC has original jurisdiction in matters relating to:

Revenue cases — disputes relating to land revenue and related matters.
Company Law — winding up of companies under the Companies Act (though NCLT now handles most company matters).
Matrimonial cases — divorce and matrimonial disputes in HCs of the Presidency towns (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras — the original "Charter HCs").
Admiralty cases — maritime disputes (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras HCs).
Election petitions (challenging election of MPs and MLAs) — filed directly in HC.

5.2 Appellate Jurisdiction

The HC is the principal appellate court for the state — appeals lie from:

District Courts (civil and criminal)
Sessions Courts in criminal matters
Revenue courts in certain states
Letters Patent Appeals — from single-judge HC bench to a Division Bench (in Charter HCs like Calcutta, Bombay, Madras)

5.3 Power of Judicial Review

HC can declare both state and central laws unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution. An HC can also declare a constitutional amendment unconstitutional if it violates the Basic Structure (though this is primarily a SC function).

6. Art. 226 — Writ Jurisdiction (Deep Dive)

6.1 Scope of Art. 226

Art. 226 empowers every HC to issue writs (including Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto, Certiorari) to any person or authority within its territorial jurisdiction:

For enforcement of any of the rights conferred by Part III (Fundamental Rights), AND
For any other purpose — i.e., for enforcement of any legal right, not just fundamental rights.

Key Distinction — Art. 226 vs Art. 32: SC under Art. 32 issues writs only for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. HC under Art. 226 can issue writs for enforcement of any right — statutory rights, common law rights, constitutional rights not in Part III. This makes HC writ jurisdiction wider in scope than SC's.

6.2 Important Features of Art. 226

Discretionary nature: Unlike Art. 32 (which is a fundamental right itself — SC cannot refuse), Art. 226 is a discretionary power. HC can refuse to exercise writ jurisdiction if there are alternative remedies, if the petition is moot, or on other equitable grounds.
Territorial jurisdiction: HC can issue writs against persons/authorities within its territorial jurisdiction. If the cause of action arises partly within the HC's jurisdiction, the HC can entertain the petition even if the authority is located elsewhere.
No suspension: Art. 226 cannot be suspended even during an Emergency under Art. 359 (which suspends Art. 32). This was made clear by the 44th Amendment 1978.
Relationship with Art. 32: Both operate concurrently for Fundamental Rights enforcement. SC held in Romesh Thappar v. State of Madras (1950) that Art. 32 is a fundamental right and cannot be curtailed. But Art. 226 is a constitutional right, not a fundamental right.

Writ	Meaning	Used against	Key use case
Habeas Corpus	"You shall have the body" — produce detained person before court	State or private parties	Unlawful detention, illegal arrest
Mandamus	"We command" — order to perform a public duty	Public authorities only (not private)	Authority refusing to exercise statutory duty
Prohibition	Prohibit inferior court from exceeding jurisdiction	Inferior courts/tribunals only	Court acting beyond its jurisdiction — preventive
Certiorari	"To be certified" — quash the decision of inferior court	Inferior courts/tribunals only	Quashing erroneous orders — corrective
Quo Warranto	"By what authority" — challenge to holding a public office	Persons holding public office	Person not qualified holding public office

7. Art. 227 — Supervisory Jurisdiction

7.1 Scope of Art. 227

Art. 227 confers on every HC the power of superintendence over all courts and tribunals throughout its territorial jurisdiction (except any court or tribunal constituted by or under any law relating to the Armed Forces).

This is an administrative and judicial supervisory power — the HC is the constitutional guardian of the subordinate judiciary.

7.2 Powers under Art. 227

Call for returns from subordinate courts
Make and issue general rules and prescribe forms for regulating the practice and proceedings of subordinate courts
Prescribe forms for books, entries, and accounts to be kept by officers of such courts
Settle a fee to be charged by the officers attached to subordinate courts
Examine court records and give directions

7.3 Art. 227 vs Art. 226 — Key Differences

Aspect	Art. 226 (Writ)	Art. 227 (Supervisory)
Nature	Judicial — discretionary writ power	Administrative + Judicial — supervisory
Applicable to	Any person/authority (public or private)	Courts and tribunals only (not private parties)
Purpose	Enforce rights; correct jurisdictional errors	Ensure proper administration of justice in subordinate courts
Scope	Wider — can issue orders against private bodies	Limited to subordinate courts and tribunals
Exception	Cannot be suspended during Emergency (post-44th Amdt)	Excludes courts/tribunals under Armed Forces laws

UPSC angle: Art. 227 applies to all courts and tribunals — including quasi-judicial tribunals. The HC can call for records of any subordinate court proceeding and if the court has acted without jurisdiction or in excess of jurisdiction, the HC can intervene. This is broader than appellate jurisdiction which requires a formal appeal.

8. Indian Judicial System Hierarchy & Common High Courts

Fig 21.2 — Hierarchy of Indian Judicial System from Supreme Court to Gram Nyayalayas

8.1 Common High Courts (Art. 231)

Parliament may establish a common HC for two or more states or for a state and a Union Territory. Current common HCs:

High Court	Jurisdiction (States/UTs)	Principal Seat
Guwahati HC	Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh (+ circuit benches)	Guwahati (Assam)
Punjab & Haryana HC	Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh (UT)	Chandigarh
Bombay HC	Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (UT)	Mumbai
Madras HC	Tamil Nadu, Puducherry (UT)	Chennai
Calcutta HC	West Bengal, Andaman & Nicobar Islands (UT)	Kolkata
Kerala HC	Kerala, Lakshadweep (UT)	Kochi (Ernakulam)

25 High Courts: India currently has 25 HCs. The newest HC is the Telangana HC (established 2019 after bifurcation from Andhra Pradesh). Andhra Pradesh HC is at Amaravati. Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh share a common HC (J&K HC) — established after J&K Reorganisation Act 2019.

9. Subordinate Courts — Arts 233–237

9.1 District Judges (Art. 233)

Art. 233 deals with the appointment, posting, and promotion of District Judges:

Appointments and posting of District Judges by the Governor of the state in consultation with the HC.
A person not already in judicial service of the state — appointed District Judge on recommendation of HC.
A person already in judicial service — promoted to District Judge by Governor in consultation with HC.

9.2 Other Judicial Officers (Art. 234)

Persons (other than District Judges) appointed to the judicial service of a state are appointed by the Governor in accordance with rules made after consultation with the State Public Service Commission and the HC.

9.3 Control by HC (Art. 235)

The control over district courts and courts subordinate thereto (other than the District Judges themselves) is vested in the High Court. This includes:

Posting and promotion of judicial officers (below District Judge level)
Grant of leave to judicial officers
General superintendence (supplemented by Art. 227)

Important distinction: District Judge appointments = Governor + HC consultation (Art. 233). Other judicial officers (below District Judge) = HC control under Art. 235. The Governor formally appoints but HC effectively controls the subordinate judiciary.

9.4 Definition of District Judge (Art. 236)

Art. 236 defines "District Judge" to include City Civil Court Judge, Additional Sessions Judge, Joint District Judge, Assistant District Judge, Chief Judge of Small Causes Court, Chief Presidency Magistrate, Additional Chief Presidency Magistrate, Sessions Judge, Additional Sessions Judge, Assistant Sessions Judge. This is an inclusive and broad definition.

9.5 Application to UTs (Art. 237)

The President may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of Arts 233–236 shall apply to any Union Territory as if it were a state, subject to such exceptions and modifications as specified.

10. Structure of Subordinate Courts

10.1 Civil Court Hierarchy

Level	Court	Pecuniary Jurisdiction
1 (Highest)	District Court / District Judge	Unlimited (original) + appellate from below
2	Civil Judge (Senior Division)	Specified by state law (higher value suits)
3	Civil Judge (Junior Division) / Munsiff	Limited (lower value suits)

10.2 Criminal Court Hierarchy

Level	Court	Key Power
1 (Highest)	Sessions Court / Additional Sessions Court	Can award death penalty (with HC confirmation); unlimited imprisonment
2	Judicial Magistrate First Class (JMFC)	Imprisonment up to 3 years; fine up to ₹10,000
3	Judicial Magistrate Second Class (JMSC)	Imprisonment up to 1 year; fine up to ₹5,000
4	Executive Magistrate	Not judicial — revenue/administrative (under state govt)

10.3 Family Courts (Family Courts Act 1984)

Established for speedy settlement of matrimonial disputes, maintenance, custody of children, and related matters.

Set up by the state government with the concurrence of the HC.
Mandatory in cities/towns with population over 1 million; discretionary in other areas.
Informal proceedings; emphasis on counselling and conciliation.
Appeals from Family Court lie to the HC.

11. Lok Adalats & Gram Nyayalayas — Alternative Dispute Resolution

11.1 Lok Adalats (Legal Services Authorities Act 1987)

Lok Adalats are forums for Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) based on the Gandhian principle of conciliation. Key features:

No court fee — if the case is settled through Lok Adalat, the court fee already paid is refunded.
No strict procedure — parties negotiate directly; no rigid rules of evidence or civil procedure.
Award is a decree: The award passed by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a decree of a civil court under the CPC — final and binding on both parties.
No appeal lies against a Lok Adalat award to any court (except by filing a fresh original petition — but not an appeal against the award).
Covers both pre-litigation and pending matters.
Organised by State Legal Services Authorities, District Legal Services Authorities, etc.

Types of Lok Adalats

Type	Key Feature
Regular / National Lok Adalats	Organised periodically; large-scale disposal of pending cases on a single day
Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)	Established for public utility services (transport, insurance, hospital, etc.); can also adjudicate if parties fail to agree (unlike regular Lok Adalats)
Mobile Lok Adalats	Travel to remote areas; enable access to justice in rural regions

Significance: Lok Adalats have been remarkably successful in reducing the backlog of Indian courts. Over 2 crore cases have been settled through Lok Adalats since 1987. They are a constitutional embodiment of Art. 39A (Directive Principle — equal justice and free legal aid).

11.2 Gram Nyayalayas (Gram Nyayalayas Act 2008)

Gram Nyayalayas are mobile courts at the village level — aimed at bringing justice to the grassroots.

Established by the state government in consultation with the HC for every Panchayat at intermediate level (or a group of Panchayats).
Presided over by a Nyayadhikari — a person who is, or is eligible to be, appointed as a First Class Judicial Magistrate.
Mobile courts — can travel within their jurisdiction to take justice to remote areas.
Jurisdiction: Both civil and criminal matters at the grassroots level (as specified in the First and Second Schedules of the Act).
Must try to settle disputes through conciliation first; use of ADR techniques encouraged.
Located at the intermediate Panchayat level — below the District Court, above the village level.
Appeals from Gram Nyayalayas lie to the District Court.

Implementation gap: Despite the 2008 Act, very few states have actually established Gram Nyayalayas. As of 2025, only about 400+ Gram Nyayalayas are functional (out of 5,000+ envisaged). This implementation gap is a recurring Mains question on access to justice in India.

12. Supreme Court vs High Court — Comparison

Fig 21.3 — Supreme Court vs High Court: 7 key differences for UPSC

12.1 Detailed Comparison Table

Feature	Supreme Court	High Court
Establishment article	Art. 124	Art. 214
Number	1 (national)	25 (state level)
Writ article	Art. 32 — only for FRs; itself a FR	Art. 226 — for any right; discretionary
Retirement age	65 years	62 years
Qualifications	Judge for 5 yrs OR Advocate for 10 yrs OR Distinguished Jurist	Judge for 10 yrs OR Advocate for 10 yrs — NO Distinguished Jurist
Practice after retirement	Cannot practice in SC (Art. 124(7))	Cannot practice in that HC only (Art. 220) — can go to SC or other HCs
Transfer	No inter-court transfer	Can be transferred HC to HC (Art. 222)
Precedent	Binding on all courts in India (Art. 141)	Binding only within territorial jurisdiction
Supervisory power	No explicit provision (has appellate/constitutional jurisdiction)	Art. 227 — superintendence over all courts & tribunals
Court of record	Art. 129	Art. 215
Contempt power	Yes — national contempt	Yes — within territorial jurisdiction

13. Prelims PYQs

Prelims 2023

With reference to the jurisdiction of High Courts in India, which of the following is correct? Art. 226 empowers HC to issue writs for the enforcement of:
Answer: Any right conferred by law — not just Fundamental Rights. This is the key distinction from Art. 32 (SC), which is limited to FRs only. HC's writ jurisdiction under Art. 226 is wider in this respect.

Prelims 2022

Consider the following statements about the supervisory jurisdiction of High Courts under Art. 227: (1) It extends to all courts and tribunals including those constituted under Armed Forces laws. (2) HC can call for records and give directions to subordinate courts.
Answer: Statement (2) is correct only. Art. 227 specifically excludes courts and tribunals constituted under any law relating to the Armed Forces from HC supervisory jurisdiction.

Prelims 2021

The retirement age of a High Court judge in India is:
Answer: 62 years (Art. 217(1)). SC judges retire at 65 years — a common UPSC trap. HC judges retire 3 years earlier than SC judges.

Prelims 2020

With reference to appointment of District Judges, which of the following is correct?
Answer: District Judges are appointed by the Governor of the state in consultation with the High Court (Art. 233) — NOT by the HC directly, NOT by the President, NOT by the State Public Service Commission.

Prelims 2019

With reference to Lok Adalats in India, consider the following: (1) An award of Lok Adalat is deemed a decree of a civil court and is final and binding. (2) An appeal against the award lies to the HC.
Answer: Statement (1) is correct; Statement (2) is incorrect. No appeal lies against a Lok Adalat award — it is final and binding. The only remedy is a fresh original suit/petition, not an appeal against the Lok Adalat award.

Prelims 2018

Gram Nyayalayas Act was enacted in:
Answer: 2008. Gram Nyayalayas are mobile courts presided over by a Nyayadhikari (First Class Judicial Magistrate), established at the intermediate panchayat level. Appeals from Gram Nyayalayas lie to the District Court.

Prelims 2017

A person can be appointed as a judge of the High Court in India if he/she has been an Advocate of a HC for at least how many years?
Answer: 10 years — under Art. 217(2). Note: For SC, the requirement is also 10 years as Advocate of an HC. The difference is SC has an additional category of "distinguished jurist" which HC does not.

14. Mains PYQs

Mains GS-II 2022

Discuss the writ jurisdiction of High Courts under Art. 226 and distinguish it from the Supreme Court's writ jurisdiction under Art. 32. (250 words)

Hint: Art. 226 wider scope — any right vs FRs only for Art. 32; Art. 32 is itself a FR (cannot be denied); Art. 226 is discretionary (alternative remedy doctrine); Art. 226 survives Emergency under Art. 359 (44th Amdt); territorial limitation of HC vs national SC; Letters Patent appeals for HC single judge decisions; concurrent operation — petitioner can approach either SC or HC for FR violations; SC can direct petition back to HC under Art. 32; Romesh Thappar case; importance of HC writ jurisdiction for access to justice at the state level.

Mains GS-II 2020

Examine the supervisory role of High Courts over subordinate courts under Art. 227. How does this differ from appellate jurisdiction? (150 words)

Hint: Art. 227 = constitutional superintendence — HC can suo motu call records; not limited to formal appeals; applies to all courts and tribunals; excludes Armed Forces courts; HC can give general directions, prescribe forms, settle fees; appellate jurisdiction = party must appeal, formal procedure, HC reviews merit; supervisory jurisdiction = HC can correct jurisdictional errors without formal appeal; ensures uniformity and quality across the state's judicial machinery; balance with Art. 235 (administrative control).

Mains GS-II 2019

"Lok Adalats have significantly contributed to reducing judicial backlog in India, yet they face serious implementation challenges." Critically examine. (250 words)

Hint: Contributions — 2+ crore cases settled; no court fee; speedy disposal; no appeal so finality; based on Art. 39A (equal justice); Permanent Lok Adalats for public utility services; National Lok Adalat impact; Challenges — quality of settlement (coercion concerns); lack of legal representation for weaker parties; limited to certain categories of disputes; awards not always enforceable in practice; understaffing of LSAs; Permanent Lok Adalats' adjudicatory power criticized; need for awareness among litigants; comparison with other ADR mechanisms (mediation, arbitration).

Mains GS-II Expected 2026

The transfer of High Court judges under Art. 222 has been a subject of controversy. Examine the provision, its judicial interpretation, and the debate around judicial independence. (250 words)

Hint: Art. 222 text — President transfers after consultation with CJI; Sankalchand Seth 1977 — must be in public interest, not punitive; transfer as punishment for inconvenient judgments — Emergency era transfers; collegium's role in transfers today — a safeguard; MoP (Memorandum of Procedure) and transfer policy; recent transfers post-collegium — CJIs being transferred; debate about protecting judicial independence vs legitimate administrative requirement to fill vacancies; comparison — SC judges cannot be transferred (they sit in one court); recommendation: transparent transfer policy, reasons to be recorded; NJAC judgment 2015 and its implications for transfer oversight.

15. 15-Minute Revision Box

Must-Remember — High Courts & Subordinate Courts

Key Articles:

Art. 214 — Every state shall have a HC
Art. 215 — HC is Court of Record
Art. 216 — Composition (CJ + judges as President deems)
Art. 217 — Appointment; retirement at 62 years
Art. 220 — Practice after retirement (barred only in that HC)
Art. 222 — Transfer of HC judges
Art. 226 — Writ power for any right (wider than SC)
Art. 227 — Supervisory jurisdiction (all courts & tribunals)
Art. 231 — Common HC for two or more states
Art. 233 — District Judges (Governor + HC consultation)
Art. 235 — Control of subordinate courts by HC

25 HCs in India:

Newest: Telangana HC (2019)
J&K and Ladakh share J&K HC
Common HCs: Guwahati, Punjab & Haryana, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Kerala

HC vs SC — Top 5 Differences:

Writ: HC (Art. 226) = any right; SC (Art. 32) = FRs only
Retirement: HC = 62 yrs; SC = 65 yrs
Distinguished jurist: SC YES (Art. 124(3)); HC NO (Art. 217(2))
Transfer: HC judges can be transferred (Art. 222); SC judges — no
Practice: HC judges barred only from that HC (Art. 220); SC judges barred from SC (Art. 124(7))

Lok Adalat Key Facts:

Statutory basis: Legal Services Authorities Act 1987
Award = decree of civil court — final and binding
No appeal against Lok Adalat award
No court fee; no strict procedure
Art. 39A — Directive Principle (equal justice)

Gram Nyayalayas:

Gram Nyayalayas Act 2008
Nyayadhikari = First Class Judicial Magistrate
Mobile courts at intermediate panchayat level
Appeals to District Court

4 UPSC Traps: (1) Art. 226 is wider than Art. 32 in scope of rights covered, but Art. 32 is a fundamental right itself (HC writ is discretionary, SC cannot refuse Art. 32 petitions). (2) HC judges retire at 62, not 65. (3) "Distinguished jurist" qualification exists only for SC, NOT HC. (4) No appeal against Lok Adalat award — this is frequently twisted in MCQs.

Item	Detail
Total HCs in India	25
HC establishment	Art. 214
HC retirement age	62 years
SC retirement age	65 years
HC writ article	Art. 226
SC writ article	Art. 32
HC supervisory	Art. 227
District Judge appt.	Gov + HC (Art. 233)
Lok Adalat Act	1987
Gram Nyayalaya Act	2008
Gram Nyayalaya head	Nyayadhikari (JMFC)
Lok Adalat award	Decree, no appeal

Feature	SC	HC
Writ	Art. 32 (FRs)	Art. 226 (any right)
Retire	65 yrs	62 yrs
Jurist	Yes	No
Transfer	No	Art. 222
Precedent	All India	State only

High Courts & Subordinate Courts

On this page

Conceptual Clarity — Where High Courts Fit

1. Establishment & Composition (Arts 214–216)

1.1 Establishment (Art. 214)

1.2 Composition (Art. 216)

2. Appointment & Qualifications (Art. 217)

2.1 Appointment (Art. 217(1))

2.2 Qualifications (Art. 217(2))

2.3 Appointment of HC Chief Justice

3. Tenure, Removal & Transfer

3.1 Tenure — Retirement at Age 62

3.2 Removal (Art. 217(1) proviso)

3.3 Transfer of HC Judges (Art. 222)

4. Independence Safeguards

5. Jurisdiction of High Courts — 5 Types

5.1 Original Jurisdiction

5.2 Appellate Jurisdiction

5.3 Power of Judicial Review

6. Art. 226 — Writ Jurisdiction (Deep Dive)

6.1 Scope of Art. 226

6.2 Important Features of Art. 226

7. Art. 227 — Supervisory Jurisdiction

7.1 Scope of Art. 227

7.2 Powers under Art. 227

7.3 Art. 227 vs Art. 226 — Key Differences

8. Indian Judicial System Hierarchy & Common High Courts

8.1 Common High Courts (Art. 231)

9. Subordinate Courts — Arts 233–237

9.1 District Judges (Art. 233)

9.2 Other Judicial Officers (Art. 234)

9.3 Control by HC (Art. 235)

9.4 Definition of District Judge (Art. 236)

9.5 Application to UTs (Art. 237)

10. Structure of Subordinate Courts

10.1 Civil Court Hierarchy

10.2 Criminal Court Hierarchy

10.3 Family Courts (Family Courts Act 1984)

11. Lok Adalats & Gram Nyayalayas — Alternative Dispute Resolution

11.1 Lok Adalats (Legal Services Authorities Act 1987)

Types of Lok Adalats

11.2 Gram Nyayalayas (Gram Nyayalayas Act 2008)

12. Supreme Court vs High Court — Comparison

12.1 Detailed Comparison Table

13. Prelims PYQs

14. Mains PYQs

15. 15-Minute Revision Box

Must-Remember — High Courts & Subordinate Courts