Physical Geography · Topic 13 · GS Paper 1 & 3

Marine Resources & the Ocean Economy — UNCLOS, Polymetallic Nodules, Ocean Energy & Blue Economy

The ocean is no longer just a frontier of geography — it is a $3-trillion economy, the source of 50 % of atmospheric oxygen, the protein lifeline of 3 billion people, and the next mineral & energy frontier. This topic covers the full ocean-economy stack: biotic resources (fisheries · mangroves · seaweed · corals), abiotic resources (offshore oil & gas · polymetallic nodules · polymetallic sulphides · cobalt-rich crusts · methane hydrates · placer minerals · REE · salt & desalination), ocean energy (tidal · wave · OTEC · offshore wind), the UNCLOS-1982 maritime-zone architecture (TS · contiguous zone · EEZ · continental shelf · ECS · the Area), India's ~2.37 million km² EEZ and ISA contracts in the Central Indian Ocean Basin, flagship missions (Sagarmala · Deep Ocean Mission · Matsya 6000 · PMMSY · MISHTI), the Blue Economy framework, and the marine-pollution / governance landscape — all with labelled diagrams and a strict Prelims-vs-Mains question split.

Physical Geography · Topic 13 · ~45 min read · Updated June 2026

Why this topic matters for UPSC

Prelims: NCERT + current-affairs MCQs on UNCLOS zones (TS 12 nm · contiguous 24 nm · EEZ 200 nm · CS up to 350 nm) · ISA & the Area · ITLOS · India's EEZ & ECS claim · polymetallic nodules (CIOB, Mn-Fe-Cu-Ni-Co composition) · methane hydrates · OTEC · tidal-power sites (Gulf of Kutch, Khambhat, Sundarbans, La Rance, Sihwa) · 13 major ports · Sagarmala · Deep Ocean Mission · Matsya 6000 · Samudrayaan · PMMSY · MISHTI · CRZ 2019 · MARPOL · GloFouling · plastic patches.

Mains GS-1 & GS-3: "Discuss the potential of India's Blue Economy" · "Evaluate the strategic and economic significance of UNCLOS for India" · "Examine the prospects of polymetallic nodule mining in the Indian Ocean" · "Analyse the role of Sagarmala in port-led development" · "Discuss ocean energy potential and challenges in India" · "Marine pollution in the Indian Ocean — sources, impacts, governance" — recurring high-yield zone.

Classification of marine resources
Biotic resources — fisheries, mangroves, seaweed, corals
Abiotic resources — hydrocarbons, nodules, hydrates, placers (Fig 13.2)
Ocean energy — tidal · wave · OTEC · offshore wind (Fig 13.3)
UNCLOS & maritime zones (Fig 13.1)
India's EEZ, ECS claim & ISA blocks (Fig 13.4)
Sagarmala & port-led development
Deep Ocean Mission · Matsya 6000 · Samudrayaan
Blue Economy framework
Marine pollution & governance (Fig 13.5)
PYQs (Prelims + Mains, separate)
Revision — 15 key facts

1 · Classification of marine resources

NCERT XI · Fundamentals of Physical Geography · Ch 13 (Water — Oceans) + NCERT XII · India: People & Economy · Ch 5 (Mineral & Energy Resources) + NCERT XII · Human Geography · Ch 7 (Trade) + Ministry of Earth Sciences, Deep Ocean Mission

Marine resources are anything humans can extract or use from the sea. They split into three families:

Family	Sub-category	Examples	UPSC angle
Biotic (living)	Marine	Fish, shrimp, tuna, crab, sea cucumber, seaweed, sponges	FAO SOFIA · PMMSY · Marine Fisheries Census
Biotic (living)	Coastal ecosystems	Mangroves, corals, seagrass, salt marshes	MISHTI · ICZM · Coral Triangle · bleaching
Abiotic (non-living)	Mineral	Polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, cobalt crusts, methane hydrates, placers (monazite, ilmenite, zircon), REE, salt	ISA contracts · DOM · KG basin gas hydrates
	Energy	Offshore oil & gas, tidal, wave, OTEC, offshore wind, salinity-gradient	DGH, OALP/DSF · NIOT projects
	Water & physical	Sand, gravel, freshwater (desalination), ocean route	Sagarmala · Sand mining ban CRZ
Service / spatial	Shipping, tourism, communication	Submarine cables, ports, cruise, marine spatial planning

One-line frame: "What lives in the sea = biotic; what lies under or moves through it = abiotic + service" — UPSC mains intros lean on this trichotomy.

2 · Biotic resources — fisheries, mangroves, seaweed, corals

2.1 World & Indian fisheries

Global capture + aquaculture: ~223 MT (FAO SOFIA 2024). Aquaculture overtook capture in 2014 and now contributes ~51 %. Top producers — China > India > Indonesia > Vietnam > Peru. India: ~17.5 MT (FY 2023-24) — 2nd largest fish producer and 2nd largest aquaculture producer; largest shrimp exporter (~$5 bn).

FAO functional split:

Capture marine — wild fish from sea (purse seines, trawls, gillnets). NW Pacific is world's richest fishery (Kuroshio-Oyashio meeting).
Capture inland — rivers, lakes, wetlands.
Marine aquaculture (mariculture) — shrimp, mussels, seaweed, finfish in cages.
Inland aquaculture — IMC (rohu/catla/mrigal), carp, pangasius — India's strength.

India's Marine Fisheries Census 2016: ~3 477 marine fishing villages, ~0.4 M fishing craft (~73 000 mechanised), ~4 M fisherfolk. Gujarat = largest marine fish producer; Andhra Pradesh = largest overall fish producer (inland heavy); Kerala & Tamil Nadu = high value.

Blue Revolution & PMMSY

Blue Revolution — launched 1985-90 (7th Plan) for aquaculture intensification; restructured 2016 as Neeli Kranti.
PMMSY — Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana, 2020-25, outlay ₹20 050 crore — largest-ever fisheries scheme. Targets: production 22 MT, exports ₹1 lakh cr, 55 lakh jobs, fish productivity to 5 t/ha.
PM-MKSSY (2024) — Matsya Kisan Samridhi Sah-Yojana (sub-scheme, ~₹6 000 cr) for formalisation, micro-insurance, digital onboarding.
Kisan Credit Card extended to fisheries 2018.
Fisheries & Aquaculture Infrastructure Development Fund (FIDF) — NABARD, ₹7 522 cr corpus.

Stress signal: ~34 % of world's marine fish stocks are over-fished (FAO 2024) — up from 10 % in 1974. India's MSY (Maximum Sustainable Yield) for marine capture ~5.3 MT — already near ceiling, hence the push to deep-sea and mariculture.

2.2 Seaweed — the "underwater forest"

Global market $17 bn, India only ~0.01 % (~30 000 t wet weight). PMMSY commits ₹640 crore for a Seaweed Park in Tamil Nadu (Kilakarai cluster) targeting 1.12 MT by 2025. Uses: agar/carrageenan (food), bio-fertiliser, biofuel, cosmetics, CO₂ sequestration (~5× of forests per area).

2.3 Mangroves — MISHTI

India has 4 992 km² mangrove cover (ISFR 2021); Sundarbans 42 % of total. Other clusters: Bhitarkanika (Odisha), Pichavaram (TN), Mahanadi, Krishna-Godavari, Gulf of Kutch.
MISHTI — Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (Budget 2023-24) — restore 540 km² of mangroves across 9 states + 3 UTs by 2028; convergence of MGNREGS + CAMPA + ICZM.
Carbon sink: mangroves store up to 1 023 t C/ha (3-5× more than upland tropical forest). Cyclone buffer — Odisha super-cyclone 1999 highlighted role.

2.4 Coral reefs

India: 4 major reef areas — Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep. Total ~5 790 km² of reef.
4th global mass-bleaching event declared April 2024 (NOAA + ICRI) — DHW > 8°C-weeks across > 60 % of reefs. 2024 IPCC AR6: 70-90 % of coral lost at 1.5 °C, > 99 % at 2 °C.
Reef Watch + ZSI + NCSCM monitoring; UN Decade of Ocean Science 2021-30 funds restoration trials in Lakshadweep.

3 · Abiotic resources — hydrocarbons, nodules, hydrates, placers

3.1 Offshore oil & gas

India offshore production: ~70 % of crude (Mumbai High, Bassein, Krishna-Godavari, Cauvery, KG-D6) and ~80 % of natural gas.
Mumbai High — discovered 1974, peaked ~470 000 bpd; declining since 2010. KG-D6 — Reliance/BP, gas restart 2020-23 (R-Cluster, Satellite, MJ).
Licensing regimes (sequence to memorise):
1. Nomination (pre-1991, ONGC/OIL)
2. PSC — Production Sharing Contract (NELP 1999-2010, 9 rounds, profit-sharing)
3. HELP — Hydrocarbon Exploration & Licensing Policy (2016) with revenue-sharing + uniform licence + market-priced gas
4. OALP — Open Acreage Licensing Policy (under HELP, on-demand block bidding; OALP-IX awarded 2024)
5. DSF — Discovered Small Fields rounds (2016-onward, for ONGC/OIL relinquished fields)
Regulator: DGH (Directorate General of Hydrocarbons), Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas. Geological body: NDR — National Data Repository at Noida.

3.2 Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules)

Potato-sized concretions on the deep-sea floor (3 500-6 500 m), formed by extremely slow precipitation of Mn-Fe oxides + adsorbed metals — growth rate just millimetres per million years. Average composition by weight:

Manganese ~24-31 % · Iron ~6-7 %
Nickel ~1.25-1.5 % · Copper ~1.0-1.4 % · Cobalt ~0.2-0.25 %
+ trace REE, Mo, Ti, Pt

Three world-class deposits: CCZ — Clarion-Clipperton Zone (E. Pacific, ~4.5 M km², the world's largest), CIOB — Central Indian Ocean Basin (India's block), Peru Basin.

India was the first country in the world to receive "Pioneer Investor" status from the UN in 1987.
ISA contract (CIOB): originally 150 000 km², currently 75 000 km² after 50 % relinquishment, valid till 2027. Estimated ~380 MT of nodules.
Implementing agencies: NIOT (Chennai) + NCPOR (Goa); mining vehicle under development: Varaha (tested at 5 270 m off Andaman, 2024).

Fig 13.2 — Polymetallic nodules: Panel A shows the abyssal-plain deep-sea setting (3 500-6 500 m) where nodules form, with a research ship and collector vehicle. Panel B is a cross-section of an individual nodule with hard nucleus and concentric Mn-Fe oxide layers — composition box gives wt % of the key strategic metals (Mn 24-31 %, Ni 1.25-1.5 %, Cu 1.0-1.4 %, Co 0.2-0.25 %). Panel C locates India's ISA contract block in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) — 75 000 km² south of the equator (~10-16°S, 72-80°E, ~4 500-5 500 m depth).

3.3 Polymetallic sulphides (seafloor massive sulphides — SMS)

Form at hydrothermal vents ("black smokers") on slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges; rich in Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, Au.
India holds a 15-year ISA contract on the Central Indian Ridge (CIR) + South-West Indian Ridge (SWIR) — area 10 000 km², signed 2016, extended to 2032.

3.4 Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts

Hard pavements on seamount flanks (800-2 500 m); rich in Co (~1 %), Ni, Mn, Pt, Te, REE.
India applied to ISA in 2024 for two cobalt-crust blocks on Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (3 000 km² in CIOB) — Sri Lanka's CLCS overlap delayed approval.

3.5 Methane hydrates ("flammable ice")

Ice-like crystalline solids in which methane molecules are trapped in cages of water — stable at low temp + high pressure (~500 m+ in deep ocean, or in permafrost).
Each m³ of hydrate yields ~164 m³ of methane at STP — staggering energy density.
India's NGHP — National Gas Hydrate Programme (launched 1997, expeditions NGHP-01 2006, NGHP-02 2015, NGHP-03 2024). Largest find: Krishna-Godavari basin ≈ 1 894 tcm (≈ trillion cubic metres) prospective resource — among the world's largest.
Production challenges: clay-rich reservoirs (unlike Japan's sandy Nankai), commercial extraction not yet viable.

3.6 Placer minerals & beach sands

Heavy minerals concentrated by wave action along beaches.

Monazite — Th-bearing → strategic (nuclear), Kerala (Manavalakurichi, Chavara), Tamil Nadu, Odisha, AP, Maharashtra.
Ilmenite, rutile (Ti); zircon (Zr); garnet; sillimanite.
India holds ~70 % of world monazite reserves. PSU custodians — IREL India Limited (Atomic Minerals Directorate, DAE).

3.7 REE & deep-sea brines

Deep-sea muds (esp. CCZ & Indian Ocean) carry 0.05-0.2 % REE oxides; Japan's GSJ 2018 estimate: 16 Mt extractable REE in Minamitorishima alone.
Red Sea brine pools (Atlantis II Deep) host Cu-Zn-Au sulphides.

3.8 Sand, salt & freshwater (desalination)

India produces ~30 MT sea-salt annually — 2nd largest world producer (after China). Gujarat (Kutch, Bhavnagar) = 76 %.
Desalination capacity ~1 200 MLD (Chennai's Nemmeli & Minjur RO plants; new 400 MLD Perur plant 2025); Lakshadweep relies on LTTD plants (NIOT).
Construction-sand extraction from coast/offshore is regulated by CRZ 2019 and a separate Sand Mining Framework 2020.

4 · Ocean energy — tidal · wave · OTEC · offshore wind

Five renewable energy streams from the sea — only offshore wind is commercial at scale; rest are demonstration / pilot.

Type	Principle	India potential	Best sites in India	Status
Tidal range (barrage)	Head difference between high & low tide drives turbines	~12 500 MW	Gulf of Kutch (Kalpasar), Gulf of Khambhat, Sundarbans (Durgaduani)	None operational; Kalpasar DPR shelved
Tidal stream (in-stream turbine)	Underwater "windmills" in fast tidal currents	~9 000 MW	Gulf of Kutch entrance	R&D (NIOT)
Wave	OWC (oscillating water column) or floats convert wave kinetic energy	~40 000 MW	SW & W coast (Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra), Andaman	NIOT OWC Vizhinjam (150 kW, 1991) — closed; Sindhuja-I float pilot 2022
OTEC	Heat-engine using ΔT between warm surface (~28 °C) and cold deep water (~5 °C at 1 000 m)	~180 000 MW	Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar, Kavaratti	NIOT 65 kW barge (Tuticorin 2000) decommissioned; 100 kW LTTD desalination active in Lakshadweep
Offshore wind	Conventional wind turbines on monopile (≤ 50 m) or floating (≥ 60 m) foundations	~127 GW (Gujarat 35 GW + TN 35 GW + more)	Gulf of Kutch (Pipavav-Kandla), Gulf of Mannar	FOWIND/FOWPI studies; VGF scheme ₹7 453 cr for 1 GW (June 2024); first commercial bid pending
Salinity gradient	Osmotic pressure between fresh- & seawater (PRO / RED)	Lab scale	Hugli, Krishna, Godavari mouths	R&D only

World benchmarks: La Rance, France (1966) 240 MW — first & longest-running tidal barrage. Sihwa Lake, S. Korea (2011) 254 MW — largest operating. Pentland Firth (Scotland) tidal-stream array (MeyGen) — largest in-stream. Hywind Tampen (Norway) — world's largest floating offshore wind farm (88 MW, 2022).

Fig 13.3 — Four streams of ocean energy: ① Tidal barrage uses the head between basin and open sea to drive bulb turbines (La Rance 240 MW, Kalpasar concept ~5 800 MW). ② Wave OWC traps water in a chamber whose oscillations push air through a Wells turbine. ③ OTEC exploits the 20+ °C gap between warm surface and 1 000 m-deep cold water using an ammonia closed cycle — India's tropical waters offer ~180 GW potential. ④ Offshore wind uses monopile foundations in shallow water (Gulf of Kutch ≤ 50 m) and floating platforms beyond ~60 m — VGF ₹7 453 cr scheme (2024) for first 1 GW.

5 · UNCLOS & maritime zones

NIOS · Geography 316 · Lesson 27 + MEA, Law of the Sea Cell + UNCLOS-1982 text

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was adopted in 1982 (Montego Bay, Jamaica) and entered into force 16 November 1994. It is often called the "Constitution of the Oceans". 167 states + EU are parties; the US has signed but not ratified. India ratified it on 29 June 1995.

UNCLOS recognises seven maritime zones, measured from the baseline (low-water line along the coast, or a "straight baseline" along deeply indented coasts):

Internal waters — landward of baseline (ports, bays). Full sovereignty; foreign ships have no automatic right of entry.
Territorial sea (TS) — out to 12 nm from baseline. Full sovereignty (incl. airspace, seabed, subsoil) but foreign ships have right of innocent passage.
Contiguous zone — from 12 nm to 24 nm. Coastal state has jurisdiction only over 4 matters: Customs, Fiscal, Immigration, Sanitary (CFIS).
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) — up to 200 nm from baseline. Coastal state has sovereign rights for exploration / exploitation / conservation of all living & non-living resources of water column + seabed, plus jurisdiction over marine research & environment. Other states retain freedom of navigation, overflight & submarine cables.
Continental shelf — natural prolongation of land territory; default to 200 nm, may extend to 350 nm or 100 nm beyond 2 500 m isobath (Art 76) on ECS — Extended Continental Shelf submission to CLCS. Sovereign rights only over seabed & subsoil resources, NOT the overlying water.
High seas — beyond all EEZs. Six freedoms (navigation, overflight, lay cables, build artificial islands, fishing, scientific research).
The "Area" — seabed beyond national jurisdiction = common heritage of mankind; managed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA, Kingston, Jamaica).

1 nautical mile = 1 852 m. So: TS = 22.2 km · CZ outer edge = 44.4 km · EEZ outer edge = 370.4 km · CS max = 648.2 km.

Fig 13.1 — UNCLOS maritime zones (cross-section): Five zones radiate from the baseline (low-water line). Territorial Sea (0-12 nm) = full sovereignty (red band). Contiguous Zone (12-24 nm) = jurisdiction over Customs, Fiscal, Immigration, Sanitary (CFIS, orange). EEZ (up to 200 nm) = sovereign rights over all resources (green). Extended Continental Shelf (200-350 nm) = seabed/subsoil only after CLCS approval (blue). Beyond 200 nm the water column is high seas; beyond all national jurisdiction the seabed is the "Area" — common heritage of mankind managed by ISA. 1 nm = 1.852 km · horizontal scale true; vertical exaggerated.

5.1 The three Hamburg / Kingston / NY trio of UNCLOS institutions

Body	Acronym	HQ	Mandate
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea	ITLOS	Hamburg, Germany	Inter-state disputes on UNCLOS interpretation; "Enrica Lexie" case (India-Italy, 2012-21).
International Seabed Authority	ISA	Kingston, Jamaica	Regulates mining in the Area; grants exploration contracts (India holds 3: nodules CIOB, sulphides CIR, cobalt-crust pending).
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf	CLCS	New York (UN HQ)	Reviews ECS submissions; gives recommendations. India submitted in 2009; revised 2024 (~1.45 M km²).

5.2 Other key conventions / bodies (UPSC favourites)

BBNJ Treaty (Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction) — adopted June 2023 (UN); often called "High Seas Treaty" — protects biodiversity beyond EEZs; 30×30 target. India signed Sept 2024.
IMO — International Maritime Organisation (London, 1948) — shipping safety + pollution (MARPOL).
IOC-UNESCO — Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (Paris). India hosts IOTWS (Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System) via INCOIS Hyderabad.

Mnemonic — UNCLOS distances "12-24-200-350": "Twelve gives full power, twenty-four gives CFIS, two-hundred gives the wallet, three-fifty gives the seabed."

6 · India's EEZ, ECS claim & ISA blocks

India is a "peninsular maritime state" — 9 coastal states + 4 UTs, 7 516.6 km coastline (mainland 6 100 + islands 1 416), ~2.37 million km² EEZ (about two-thirds of India's land area), 1 382 islands. Coastline length will rise to ~11 098 km on the new Survey of India 2024 mapping (high-resolution).

Maritime Zones Act, 1976

India's domestic implementation of UNCLOS (pre-dates UNCLOS-1982 because earlier UNCLOS-I/II already framed the concepts). Declares TS = 12 nm, CZ = 24 nm, EEZ = 200 nm — implemented by Notification 15 Jan 1977.

India's Extended Continental Shelf submission

India filed its first submission to CLCS in May 2009 claiming an ECS of ~1.2 million km² in three regions: Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea.
Revised & partial submissions in 2024-25 — additional ~0.25 M km²; total potential ECS ~1.45 M km².
If accepted, India's total under-jurisdiction sea area would expand to ~3.8 M km² — larger than India's land area.
Overlap issues: Pakistan (Arabian Sea, esp. Sir Creek), Bangladesh (Bay of Bengal — resolved by PCA arbitral award 2014), Myanmar, Sri Lanka.

India's three ISA contracts (the Area)

Year	Resource	Region	Area	Validity
1987 (Pioneer Investor); 2002 contract	Polymetallic nodules	CIOB (Central Indian Ocean Basin), ~10-16°S, 72-80°E	75 000 km² (after relinquishment)	till 2027
2016	Polymetallic sulphides	CIR + SWIR (Central + SW Indian Ridge)	10 000 km²	till 2032
2024 (filed)	Cobalt-rich crusts	Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (CIOB)	~3 000 km² (under review; Sri Lanka overlap)	pending

Fig 13.4 — India's maritime jurisdiction: mainland + Andaman-Nicobar + Lakshadweep generate an EEZ of ~2.37 M km² (green dashed) plus an ECS claim of ~1.45 M km² (blue dashed) under review at the CLCS. The 13 major ports ring the coast — Deendayal (Kandla), Mumbai, JNPA, Mormugao, New Mangalore, Cochin, V.O. Chidambaranar (Tuticorin), Chennai, Kamarajar (Ennore), Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Syama Prasad Mookerjee (Kolkata/Haldia) + the 13th declared Vadhavan (Maharashtra, 2024). Offshore oil/gas at Mumbai High and KG-D6. India's three ISA contracts in the Area: nodules at CIOB (75 000 km², 10-16°S 72-80°E), polymetallic sulphides on the Central Indian Ridge (10 000 km²), and cobalt-crust application on Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (2024).

Note: Government recognised Vadhavan Port (Maharashtra) as the 13th major port in 2024 (₹76 220 cr Cabinet approval) — replaces the older list of 12. Aspirants must memorise this update.

7 · Sagarmala & port-led development

Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways · Sagarmala Programme · MIV-2030 · Amrit Kaal Vision 2047

Launched 14 March 2015 by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways. Vision: reduce logistics cost (currently ~14 % of GDP) by integrating sea, rail, road, inland waterways. Total outlay ~₹5.5 lakh crore across 800+ projects by 2035.

Four pillars of Sagarmala

Port modernisation & new ports — 13 major + 200+ minor; new mega-ports (Vadhavan-MH 2024, Galathea Bay-A&N approved).
Port connectivity — last-mile rail/road (Bharatmala convergence); inland waterways (NW-1 Ganga-Bhagirathi, NW-2 Brahmaputra, NW-3 West-Coast Canal).
Port-led industrialisation — Coastal Economic Zones (CEZ); CEZ-1 Maharashtra, CEZ-2 Gujarat, CEZ-3 Tamil Nadu, etc.
Coastal community development — fisher skill-up, ROPAX terminals, cruise tourism.

Key data points

India handles ~95 % of trade by volume + 70 % by value via sea — yet share of inland waterways in modal mix only ~2 % (vs 47 % in China).
Maritime India Vision (MIV) 2030 — 150+ initiatives; target port capacity from 2 600 MTPA → 10 000 MTPA.
Amrit Kaal Vision 2047 (released 2023) — 300+ initiatives, 10 mega-ports, 8 mega ship-building parks, Indian-flagged tonnage to global top-5.
Major port traffic FY 2023-24: ~819 MT; growth ~4 %; Paradip overtook Deendayal as largest by cargo (2023).
Vizhinjam (Kerala) — India's first deep-water transshipment port (16-20 m draft), commissioned July 2024; Adani Ports operator.
Cabotage relaxation 2018 — foreign-flagged ships allowed coastal movement of empty containers + EXIM transshipment, to deepen Indian transshipment.

Sagar-themed scheme family: Sagarmala (ports) · SAGAR doctrine ("Security & Growth for All in the Region", 2015 IOR foreign policy) · SAGAR-MANTHAN dashboard (real-time port data) · Sagar Setu (logistics portal, 2023) · O-SMART (Ocean Services, Modelling, Applied Research) MoES umbrella, ₹2 177 cr.

8 · Deep Ocean Mission · Matsya 6000 · Samudrayaan

Deep Ocean Mission (DOM) was approved by the Cabinet on 16 June 2021 as a flagship MoES programme; outlay ₹4 077 crore over 5 years (2021-26). Six verticals:

#	Vertical	Lead	Flagship deliverable
1	Manned submersible (deep-sea human exploration)	NIOT, Chennai	Matsya 6000 — 3-person Ti-alloy hull, 6 000 m design depth; mission name Samudrayaan; sea trials 2024-25, full 6 000 m dive target 2026.
2	Climate-change advisory	INCOIS / ICRP	Decadal Indian Ocean projections.
3	Deep-sea biodiversity	NCPOR, CMLRE	Hydrothermal-vent bioprospecting.
4	Deep-sea mining + minerals survey	NIOT + NCPOR	Mining tech (Varaha collector, 5 270 m test 2024).
5	Ocean energy + freshwater	NIOT	OTEC + LTTD desalination (1.5 lakh L/d Kavaratti).
6	Advanced marine-station for engineering	NIOT	Field test & calibration facility, Chennai.

Matsya 6000 — quick facts

Titanium-alloy spherical personnel sphere Ø 2.1 m · hull thickness ~80 mm · withstand pressure ~600 bar.
3 crew (1 pilot + 2 scientists) · life support ~12 hr nominal, 96 hr emergency.
Joins exclusive club — only US Alvin, France Nautile, Russia Mir-1/2, Japan Shinkai 6500, China Jiaolong/Fendouzhe have built >6 000 m manned subs.

Allied institutions

MoES — Ministry of Earth Sciences (parent).
NIOT — National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai.
NCPOR — National Centre for Polar & Ocean Research, Goa.
INCOIS — Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, Hyderabad (tsunami warning, PFZ advisories to fishermen, Ocean State Forecast).
NIO — National Institute of Oceanography, Goa (CSIR lab).
CMLRE — Centre for Marine Living Resources & Ecology, Kochi.
NCCR — National Centre for Coastal Research, Chennai.

Why DOM matters strategically: nodule mining covers ~70 % of India's projected demand for Ni + Co + Cu by 2050 (critical for batteries/EVs); deep-sea drugs market is forecast $10 bn by 2030; Matsya 6000 deters Chinese deep-sea claims in IOR.

9 · Blue Economy framework

"Blue Economy" = sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth + improved livelihoods + jobs while preserving ocean-ecosystem health (World Bank, 2017). Anchored in SDG-14: Life Below Water.

India's Draft Blue Economy Policy (EAC-PM, Feb 2021)

Seven thematic pillars — recurring Mains hot-spots:

National accounting framework for Blue Economy + coastal state spatial planning.
Coastal marine spatial planning & tourism.
Marine fisheries, aquaculture & fish processing (PMMSY linkage).
Manufacturing, emerging industries, trade, technology, services & skill development.
Logistics, infrastructure & shipping (Sagarmala convergence).
Coastal & deep-sea mining, offshore energy.
Security, strategic dimensions & international engagement.

Numbers to quote

India's Blue Economy contributes ~4 % of GDP currently; target ~9-10 % by 2030 (NITI Aayog Working Group).
Global Blue Economy: $3 trillion in 2030 (OECD); could reach $5 trillion by 2050.
India in IORA Working Group on Blue Economy (chaired 2021-23).

International linkages

UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development — 2021-30.
BBNJ "High Seas Treaty" — June 2023 (signed by India Sept 2024).
30×30 target — Kunming-Montreal Biodiversity Framework, COP-15 (2022) — protect 30 % oceans by 2030.
Quad Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) — 2022, real-time vessel tracking.
IPOI — Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (PM, EAS 2019), 7 pillars incl. Maritime ecology (India + Australia leads) and Marine resources (India + France leads).

10 · Marine pollution & governance

NCERT XII · Human Geography · Ch 7 + UN Environment, GESAMP, MoEFCC State of Indian Coasts

The ocean absorbs ~30 % of anthropogenic CO₂ and ~90 % of excess heat trapped by greenhouse gases — but at growing cost. 80 % of marine pollution is land-based (UNEP).

Pollutant	Source	Impact	India / world signal
Plastic / microplastic	~80 % via rivers (Ganga = 2nd largest plastic-discharging river globally; Brahmaputra also top-10)	~11 MT/yr enter oceans; ingestion by 700+ species; 5 garbage patches (GPGP biggest, 1.6 M km²)	India banned single-use plastic 1 Jul 2022; Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) 2022 rules.
Oil spills	Tanker accidents, offshore well blowouts, deliberate discharge	Coats birds/mammals, smothers benthos, lasts decades	Mumbai MV Chitra-MSC Chitra collision 2010; Mauritius MV Wakashio 2020; Indian Coast Guard NOSDCP.
Nutrient runoff (eutrophication)	Fertiliser N+P, sewage	Algal blooms → hypoxia → "dead zones" (Gulf of Mexico, Baltic, Bay of Bengal)	BoB dead-zone — second-largest world; nitrate-driven by Indo-Gangetic agro runoff.
Heavy metals + POPs	Industry, e-waste, ship-breaking	Bioaccumulate up food chain (mercury → tuna → humans)	Alang ship-breaking yard (Gujarat) — Basel Convention scrutiny.
Noise pollution	Shipping, sonar, seismic surveys	Disrupts whale/dolphin echolocation, migration	IMO 2023 revised guidelines on shipping noise reduction.
Invasive species via ballast	Ballast water uptake/release	Disrupts local marine ecology	Ballast Water Mgmt Convention 2017 (India ratified 2024); GloFouling Partnership (IMO-GEF-UNDP).
Acidification	Atmospheric CO₂ → carbonic acid in seawater	Ocean pH 8.2 → 8.1 (−30 % H⁺); reef & shellfish decline	IPCC AR6 trajectory; INCOIS monitors via Indian Argo programme.
Sea-level rise	Thermal expansion + ice-sheet melt	3.7 mm/yr global avg; coastal inundation	Sundarbans, Lakshadweep, Mumbai high-risk.

Fig 13.5 — Marine pollution at three scales: Panel A maps the five oceanic garbage patches (Great Pacific Garbage Patch is biggest at 1.6 M km²) and three of the highest-load rivers (Yangtze, Ganga, Nile) feeding them. Panel B's pie shows the source split — ~80 % land-based (UNEP). Panel C stacks the governance ladder: Global (UNCLOS, MARPOL, London Convention, BBNJ 2023, BWM) → Regional (IORA, IPOI, Quad IPMDA) → National Acts (Maritime Zones 1976, MS Act 1958, EPA 1986) → Rules & institutions (CRZ 2019, NCZMA, ICG NOSDCP, CPCB). Right column lists India's flagship schemes (MISHTI, Project Dolphin, plastic ban) and the research network (INCOIS, NIOT, NCPOR, NCCR, NIO, CMLRE).

CRZ-2019 (current rules)

Notification under EPA-1986; replaces CRZ-2011. Coastal stretches divided into four categories:

CRZ-I — ecologically sensitive areas (mangroves, corals, turtle-nesting beaches, mudflats); split into IA (no construction) + IB (permitted exploratory).
CRZ-II — already developed urban areas (cities like Mumbai); FSI as on date of notification.
CRZ-III — rural areas (relatively undisturbed); split into IIIA (densely populated, NDZ = 50 m from HTL) + IIIB (sparsely populated, NDZ = 200 m).
CRZ-IV — water body up to 12 nm; fishing & navigation regulated; sand-mining banned.

Implementing body: NCZMA (National Coastal Zone Management Authority) + SCZMAs.

11 · Previous-Year Questions (PYQs) — Prelims & Mains, strictly separate

Direct UPSC CSE questions on the marine-resources / ocean-economy / UNCLOS / Blue Economy cluster, followed by topic-aligned practice questions. Prelims (objective) and Mains (descriptive) banks never mixed.

A · Prelims — Direct UPSC questions

UPSC CSE Prelims 2022

Q. "Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty." Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement?

(Cross-topic — Polity. Skipped here.)

UPSC CSE Prelims 2022

Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Some microorganisms can grow in environments with temperature above the boiling point of water.
2. Some microorganisms can grow in environments with temperature below the freezing point of water.
3. Some microorganisms can grow in highly acidic environment with a pH below 3.
4. Some microorganisms can grow in alkaline environment with a pH above 9.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (d). Extremophiles include thermophiles in hydrothermal vents, psychrophiles in polar oceans, acidophiles & alkaliphiles — all studied in deep-sea / marine biology.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2021

Q. "Sagarmala Project" is related to:
(a) port-led development of India (b) integrated coastal-zone management plan (c) river-interlinking (d) regional cooperation in fisheries

Answer: (a). Sagarmala (2015) — Min. of Ports/Shipping/Waterways — port modernisation + connectivity + port-led industrialisation + coastal communities.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2021

Q. Consider the following statements about "Blue Carbon":
1. Carbon captured by living organisms in oceans is stored as bio-mass in coastal ecosystems like mangrove forests, sea-grass beds and salt-marshes.
2. Blue Carbon represents over 50 percent of all carbon stored in the earth's atmosphere.
Which of the statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both (d) Neither

Answer: (a). Mangroves/sea-grass/salt-marshes capture 4× more C per ha than tropical forests; statement 2 is wildly wrong (Blue C ≈ 1 % of atmospheric C).

UPSC CSE Prelims 2020

Q. Consider the following statements: 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. Coal-fired power plants release mercury into the oceans.

(Cross-topic — Environment. Heavy-metals signal also relevant to marine pollution.)

Answer: All three correct. Atmospheric Hg deposition → bioaccumulates in tuna (UNEP Minamata Convention 2013).

UPSC CSE Prelims 2018

Q. What is/are unique about "Kharai camel", a breed found in India?
1. It is capable of swimming up to 3 km in seawater. 2. It survives by grazing on mangroves. 3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 & 3 only (c) 1 & 2 only (d) 1, 2 & 3

Answer: (c). Kharai — Gulf of Kutch coast; uses mangroves; not a wild breed (1 & 2 correct).

UPSC CSE Prelims 2018

Q. "Polar Code" formally known as "International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters" entered into force in 2017. It is administered by:
(a) IUCN (b) UNCLOS (c) IMO (d) UNFCCC

Answer: (c) IMO — sets safety + environmental standards for ships in Arctic/Antarctic.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2017

Q. Discuss what is the importance of organisations like the International Seabed Authority? Where is its headquarters located?

Answer: ISA (Kingston, Jamaica) regulates exploration & exploitation of mineral resources in the Area (seabed beyond national jurisdiction) — common heritage of mankind under UNCLOS Part XI.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2015

Q. The most important strait connecting the South China Sea with the Andaman Sea is:
(a) Strait of Sunda (b) Strait of Malacca (c) Strait of Bali (d) Strait of Lombok

Answer: (b) Malacca — the world's most strategic chokepoint, ~30 % of seaborne trade.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2014

Q. What is/are the importance/importances of the "United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification"?

(Cross-topic — environment. Not used.)

UPSC CSE Prelims 2014

Q. A new type of El Niño called "El Niño Modoki" appeared in the news. In this context, consider the following statements:
1. Normal El Niño forms in the Central Pacific while Modoki forms in the Eastern Pacific.
2. Normal El Niño leads to weak monsoon; Modoki leads to heavy monsoon.
Which is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both (d) Neither

Answer: (d). Reversed — Modoki = Central Pacific warm pool; both can suppress monsoon. Repeatedly tested theme — read alongside IOD.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2011

Q. The Himalayan ranges have many tribal communities. Which of the following is best identified as a coastal seafaring tribal community of South India?

(Cross-topic. Skipped.)

Practice Prelims — topic-aligned (one-liners)

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Breadth of contiguous zone under UNCLOS? (a) 12 nm (b) 24 nm (c) 200 nm (d) 350 nm

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Maximum extent of "Extended Continental Shelf"? (a) 200 nm (b) 350 nm or 100 nm beyond 2 500 m isobath (c) 250 nm only (d) Unlimited

Answer: (b) — Art 76.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Which four metals dominate polymetallic-nodule composition? (a) Cu, Pb, Zn, Au (b) Fe, Al, Cr, V (c) Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu (with Co) (d) Hg, As, Pb, Cd

Answer: (c).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. India's polymetallic-nodule ISA block lies in: (a) Bay of Bengal (b) Andaman Sea (c) Central Indian Ocean Basin (d) Arabian Sea

Answer: (c) CIOB · 75 000 km².

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Answer: (c) — India was the world's first.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Methane hydrates require: (a) high temp + low pressure (b) low temp + high pressure (c) any condition (d) only sub-zero

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. India's largest gas-hydrate prospect basin? (a) Cauvery (b) Krishna-Godavari (c) Mumbai (d) Andaman

Answer: (b) KG · ~1 894 tcm.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. World's first commercial tidal-power plant? (a) Sihwa, S. Korea (b) La Rance, France 1966 (c) Annapolis Royal, Canada (d) MeyGen, Scotland

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. World's largest operating tidal plant? (a) La Rance (b) Sihwa Lake S. Korea (254 MW, 2011) (c) Annapolis Royal (d) MeyGen

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. India's best site for tidal-power potential? (a) Gulf of Kutch & Khambhat (b) Coromandel (c) Lakshadweep (d) Andaman

Answer: (a).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. OTEC requires minimum ΔT between surface and deep water of about: (a) 5 °C (b) 10 °C (c) 20 °C (d) 30 °C

Answer: (c) ≥ 20 °C — confines OTEC to tropics.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Matsya 6000 is being developed by: (a) ISRO (b) NIOT (c) DRDO (d) ONGC

Answer: (b) NIOT, Chennai under MoES Deep Ocean Mission.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Deep Ocean Mission outlay (5 years)? (a) ₹1 077 cr (b) ₹2 077 cr (c) ₹3 077 cr (d) ₹4 077 cr

Answer: (d).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Samudrayaan is the mission name for: (a) underwater data cable (b) Matsya 6000 manned dive (c) deep-sea mining vehicle (d) coastal radar network

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Largest fish-producing state in India? (a) Kerala (b) Gujarat (c) Andhra Pradesh (d) Tamil Nadu

Answer: (c) AP overall; Gujarat leads marine.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. PMMSY outlay (2020-25)? (a) ₹5 050 cr (b) ₹10 050 cr (c) ₹15 050 cr (d) ₹20 050 cr

Answer: (d).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. MISHTI scheme targets restoration of: (a) corals (b) sea-grass (c) mangroves over 540 km² (d) ports

Answer: (c).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Largest mangrove cover in India by area? (a) Bhitarkanika (b) Sundarbans (c) Pichavaram (d) Gulf of Kutch

Answer: (b) Sundarbans ≈ 42 %.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. India's 13th major port (declared 2024)? (a) Vizhinjam (b) Vadhavan (c) Galathea Bay (d) Adani Krishnapatnam

Answer: (b) Vadhavan · ₹76 220 cr.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. India's first deep-water transshipment port (commissioned 2024)? (a) Mundra (b) JNPA (c) Vizhinjam, Kerala (d) Cochin

Answer: (c).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. ITLOS headquarters? (a) The Hague (b) Hamburg (c) Geneva (d) Kingston

Answer: (b) Hamburg.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. ISA headquarters? (a) Kingston, Jamaica (b) Nairobi (c) New York (d) London

Answer: (a).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. BBNJ Treaty (2023) is also called: (a) UNFCCC (b) High Seas Treaty (c) Convention on Migratory Species (d) MARPOL Annex VI

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Which is the largest oceanic garbage patch? (a) Indian Ocean (b) North Atlantic (c) Great Pacific Garbage Patch (1.6 M km²) (d) South Pacific

Answer: (c).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. ~ what share of marine pollution is land-based? (a) ~20 % (b) ~50 % (c) ~80 % (d) ~95 %

Answer: (c) UNEP.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Answer: (d).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Answer: (b) May 2009 to CLCS.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Which Indian basin holds > 70 % of monazite reserves? (a) Coastal sands of Kerala-TN-Odisha-AP (b) Aravalli (c) Vindhyan (d) Singhbhum

Answer: (a) — placer deposits.

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. Polymetallic sulphides form near: (a) abyssal plains (b) hydrothermal vents on mid-ocean ridges (c) continental shelves (d) coral reefs

Answer: (b).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. SAGAR doctrine, 2015, expands to: (a) Security & Growth for All in Region (b) Ships & Goods Across Routes (c) Surveillance & Governance of Asian Routes (d) South Asian Group for Allied Resources

Answer: (a).

Practice Prelims · MCQ

Q. "The Area" under UNCLOS refers to: (a) high-seas water column (b) seabed and subsoil beyond national jurisdiction (c) Antarctic waters (d) deep ocean trenches only

Answer: (b) — Part XI, common heritage of mankind.

B · Mains — Direct UPSC questions (GS 1 & GS 3)

UPSC CSE Mains 2022 · GS-3

Q. What are the consequences of spreading of "Dead Zones" on marine ecosystem? (150 words)

Answer cues: hypoxic / anoxic zones from nutrient runoff & eutrophication; impacts: mass fish die-offs; collapse of benthic biodiversity (mussels, crabs); collapse of fisheries-dependent livelihoods; methane & H₂S release; positive feedback worsens climate forcing. Examples — Gulf of Mexico, Baltic, Bay of Bengal (world's 2nd-largest). Way fwd — nutrient-management plans, MARPOL Annex VI, ICZM.

UPSC CSE Mains 2021 · GS-1

Q. Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (250 words)

Answer cues: 60 % of world oil in W Asia + 25 % Russia/Caspian → strategic chokepoints (Hormuz, Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb); price volatility (1973 oil shock, 2022 Russia-Ukraine); pipeline geopolitics (TAPI, IPI); maritime piracy (Gulf of Aden, Malacca); push for Indian offshore — Mumbai High, KG-D6, OALP, DSF; Indo-Pacific energy security via Quad & IPMDA.

UPSC CSE Mains 2020 · GS-1

Q. The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. (250 words)

(Cross-topic — Water resources. Skipped.)

UPSC CSE Mains 2019 · GS-3

Q. Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. Analyse the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples. (150 words)

Answer cues: impacts — beach loss → reduced storm-buffering; saline ingress into aquifers; loss of turtle-nesting (Olive Ridley); destabilisation of port channels; loss of placer minerals (monazite, ilmenite). Examples — Kollam & Alappuzha (Kerala, monazite mining), Bhitarkanika (Odisha), Ennore (TN). Way fwd — CRZ 2019, Sand Mining Framework 2020, satellite monitoring (NRSC), substitution with M-sand.

UPSC CSE Mains 2018 · GS-1

Q. Define mantle plume and explain its role in plate tectonics.

(Cross-topic — Geomorphology. Hydrothermal-vent / SMS link relevant for marine minerals.)

UPSC CSE Mains 2017 · GS-1

Q. Petroleum refineries are not necessarily located near crude-oil producing areas, particularly in many of the developing countries. Explain its implications. (200 words)

Answer cues: coastal refineries (Jamnagar, Vadinar, Cochin, Mangalore) for import-dependent India — leverage SBM (single-buoy mooring), economy of scale, port-rail linkages; jobs, CEZ industrialisation; risk — oil-spill, MARPOL compliance. Sagarmala-led integration.

UPSC CSE Mains 2017 · GS-2

Q. "China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia." In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour.

(Cross-topic — IR. Strings of Pearls in Indian Ocean relevant: Gwadar, Hambantota, Kyaukpyu, Djibouti, Chittagong.)

UPSC CSE Mains 2015 · GS-1

Q. Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural-urban integration. (200 words)

(Cross-topic. Skipped.)

UPSC CSE Mains 2014 · GS-1

Q. Tropical cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why?

(Cross-topic — Climatology. See Topic 9.)

UPSC CSE Mains 2013 · GS-1

Q. Explain how Private Public Partnership arrangements, in long-gestation infrastructure projects, can transfer unsustainable liabilities to the future. What arrangements need to be put in place to ensure that successive generations' capacities are not compromised? (200 words)

(Cross-topic — but Sagarmala & Vadhavan are textbook PPP examples.)

Practice Mains — topic-aligned (with diagram cues)

Practice Mains · GS-1

Q. Discuss the significance of UNCLOS for India's maritime interests. (150 words) — diagram: Fig 13.1 zones cross-section.

Practice Mains · GS-1

Q. Examine the prospects and challenges of polymetallic-nodule mining in the Central Indian Ocean Basin. (250 words) — diagram: Fig 13.2 nodule composition + CIOB.

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. "India's Deep Ocean Mission marks a strategic pivot from land to sea." Discuss. (250 words)

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Evaluate the potential of ocean energy in India's renewable-energy mix. Why has commercial deployment lagged? (250 words) — diagram: Fig 13.3 four-quadrant energy.

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Critically analyse the Draft Blue Economy Policy of India. Highlight its seven thematic pillars. (250 words)

Practice Mains · GS-1

Q. Examine the role of mangroves and coral reefs in protecting India's coastline. Discuss MISHTI in this context. (150 words)

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Trace the evolution of India's hydrocarbon licensing — from Nomination to OALP/DSF. Has the regime improved investment? (250 words)

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Discuss the sources, impacts and governance of marine plastic pollution in the Indian Ocean. (250 words) — diagram: Fig 13.5 garbage-patch map.

Practice Mains · GS-1

Q. Account for the strategic significance of India's island territories (Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep) in the Blue Economy framework. (150 words)

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Sagarmala has reimagined India's ports. Analyse achievements after a decade (2015-25). (250 words)

Practice Mains · GS-2

Q. What is the BBNJ Treaty? How does it complement UNCLOS in ocean governance? (150 words)

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Methane hydrates are touted as the future of energy. Discuss India's preparedness (NGHP) and ecological risks. (250 words)

Practice Mains · GS-1

Q. "India's Extended Continental Shelf claim is geopolitically consequential." Substantiate with reference to ongoing CLCS submissions. (150 words) — diagram: Fig 13.4 India EEZ + ECS.

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. Examine the impact of climate change — sea-level rise, marine heatwaves, acidification — on India's coastal economy and adaptation strategies. (250 words)

Practice Mains · GS-3

Q. "India's marine fisheries face an MSY ceiling." Suggest a mariculture-led pathway. Discuss PMMSY's role. (250 words)

12 · Revision — 15 key facts to memorise

UNCLOS-1982 — entered force 16 Nov 1994; India ratified 29 June 1995. 167 + EU parties. "Constitution of the oceans."
Maritime-zone distances — TS 12 nm · CZ 24 nm · EEZ 200 nm · CS max 350 nm (or 100 nm beyond 2 500 m isobath, Art 76). 1 nm = 1.852 km.
India EEZ ~2.37 M km²; ECS claim ~1.45 M km² at CLCS — if accepted, total ~3.8 M km² (greater than land area).
Three UNCLOS bodies — ITLOS Hamburg, ISA Kingston, CLCS New York. India's "Enrica Lexie" case went to ITLOS (2021).
India's three ISA contracts — (i) polymetallic nodules CIOB 75 000 km² (since 1987 Pioneer Investor), (ii) sulphides CIR + SWIR 10 000 km² (2016), (iii) cobalt-crust Afanasy Nikitin seamount application (2024).
Polymetallic nodule composition — Mn 24-31 %, Fe 6-7 %, Ni 1.25-1.5 %, Cu 1.0-1.4 %, Co 0.2-0.25 %. Grow only mm per million yrs. CCZ (E Pacific) is world's largest deposit.
Methane hydrates — KG basin ~1 894 tcm (NGHP-02); 1 m³ hydrate ≈ 164 m³ methane. Need low T + high P.
Ocean energy potential in India — tidal ~12 500 MW · wave ~40 000 MW · OTEC ~180 000 MW · offshore wind ~127 GW. La Rance 240 MW (1966) is world's first; Sihwa S. Korea 254 MW is largest operating.
Deep Ocean Mission — Cabinet 16 Jun 2021 · MoES · ₹4 077 cr · 5 yrs · 6 verticals. Flagship — Matsya 6000 (mission Samudrayaan), 3-person Ti-alloy sphere to 6 000 m.
India fisheries — ~17.5 MT/yr (2nd in world after China); 2nd-largest aquaculture; 1st in shrimp export ($5 bn). PMMSY ₹20 050 cr (2020-25) · MSY for marine ~5.3 MT.
Sagarmala 2015 — Ministry of Ports/Shipping/Waterways; ~₹5.5 lakh cr; 4 pillars (port modernisation · connectivity · port-led industrialisation · coastal community). 95 % of India's trade by volume is sea-borne.
13 major ports — Deendayal (Kandla) · Mumbai · JNPA · Mormugao · New Mangalore · Cochin · V.O. Chidambaranar (Tuticorin) · Chennai · Kamarajar (Ennore) · Vishakhapatnam · Paradip · Syama Prasad Mookerjee (Kolkata/Haldia) + Vadhavan (Maharashtra, 2024). Vizhinjam (2024) — first deep-water transshipment.
Mangroves — India 4 992 km² (Sundarbans 42 %). MISHTI (2023 Budget) — restore 540 km². Mangroves store up to 1 023 t C/ha — top blue-carbon sink.
Marine pollution — ~80 % land-based (UNEP). 11 MT plastic/yr enters oceans. Great Pacific Garbage Patch 1.6 M km² — largest. Ocean pH 8.2 → 8.1 (−30 % H⁺). SLR 3.7 mm/yr. India banned single-use plastic 1 Jul 2022; CRZ-2019 & NCZMA govern coast.
Blue Economy — World Bank framing; SDG-14. India draft policy 2021 — 7 pillars. Contribution ~4 % GDP → target 9-10 % by 2030. BBNJ "High Seas Treaty" June 2023 (India signed Sept 2024). IPOI 7 pillars (Maritime ecology India-Australia, Marine resources India-France).

Mega-mnemonic for the topic — "12-24-200-350-DOM-VVM":

12-24-200-350 = UNCLOS zone breadths in nm.
D = Deep Ocean Mission (₹4 077 cr, 6 verticals).
O = OTEC / Ocean energy (180 GW potential).
M = MISHTI mangroves + Matsya 6000 + Mn-Fe-Ni-Cu nodules.
V-V-M = Vadhavan (13th major port) · Vizhinjam (1st transshipment) · Varaha (mining collector, 5 270 m).

Mini-reference

Ocean cover Earth71 %
Ocean = O₂ produced~50 %
Ocean economy (global)~$3 trillion
Territorial sea12 nm
Contiguous zone24 nm
EEZ200 nm
Continental shelf (max)350 nm
1 nautical mile1.852 km
India EEZ~2.37 M km²
India ECS claim+1.45 M km²
India coastline7 516.6 km
India major ports13
India minor ports~217
India fish production~17.5 MT
India world fish rank2nd
Aquaculture rank2nd
CIOB ISA nodule block75 000 km²
CIR sulphide block10 000 km²
Nodule Mn content24–31 %
Nodule growth ratemm/Myr
Methane hydrate KG basin~1 894 tcm
India OTEC potential~180 000 MW
India tidal potential~12 500 MW
India wave potential~40 000 MW
India offshore wind potential~127 GW
La Rance tidal plant240 MW · 1966
Sihwa Lake (S. Korea)254 MW · largest
DOM budget (₹)4 077 cr · 5 yr
Matsya-6000 design depth6 000 m
PMMSY outlay₹20 050 cr
Sagarmala outlay₹5.5 lakh cr
MISHTI mangrove target540 km²
Submarine cables = data~97 %
Plastic in oceans/yr~11 MT
CRZ rules current2019
UNCLOS adopted1982 · 1994
BBNJ Treaty2023

Keyword cloud

UNCLOS 1982EEZTerritorial seaContiguous zoneContinental shelfECS claimThe AreaISAITLOSCLCSPolymetallic nodulesCIOBCIRPolymetallic sulphidesCobalt crustsMethane hydratesNGHPKG basinPlacer mineralsREEMonaziteOTECTidal energyLa RanceSihwaWave energyOffshore windGulf of KutchGulf of KhambhatSundarbansSagarmala13 major portsJNPAVizhinjamPMMSYBlue RevolutionMarine fisheriesInland aquacultureSeaweedSea cucumberMangrovesMISHTICoral reefsCoral bleachingDeep Ocean MissionMatsya 6000SamudrayaanNIOTNCPORINCOISBlue EconomySDG-14BBNJ TreatyMARPOLLondon ConventionBallast WaterGloFoulingPlastic gyresOil spillsEutrophicationDead zonesMicroplasticsAcidificationCRZ 2019NCZMAMaritime India Vision 2030Amrit Kaal Vision 2047

Quick self-check

Breadth of territorial sea + contiguous zone + EEZ?
Where are India's polymetallic nodule blocks located?
Name two operating tidal-power plants in the world.
Composition of polymetallic nodules — 4 main metals?
India's first ECS submission was made to which body?
Difference between PSC, OALP and DSF in offshore O&G.
Why is OTEC suited to India's island territories?
Difference between Matsya 6000 and Samudrayaan.
What is the BBNJ Treaty (2023) about?
Three flagship Indian missions for marine resources.

Marine Resources & the Ocean Economy — UNCLOS, Polymetallic Nodules, Ocean Energy & Blue Economy

Why this topic matters for UPSC

Contents

1 · Classification of marine resources

2 · Biotic resources — fisheries, mangroves, seaweed, corals

2.1 World & Indian fisheries

Blue Revolution & PMMSY

2.2 Seaweed — the "underwater forest"

2.3 Mangroves — MISHTI

2.4 Coral reefs

3 · Abiotic resources — hydrocarbons, nodules, hydrates, placers

3.1 Offshore oil & gas

3.2 Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules)

3.3 Polymetallic sulphides (seafloor massive sulphides — SMS)

3.4 Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts

3.5 Methane hydrates ("flammable ice")

3.6 Placer minerals & beach sands

3.7 REE & deep-sea brines

3.8 Sand, salt & freshwater (desalination)

4 · Ocean energy — tidal · wave · OTEC · offshore wind

5 · UNCLOS & maritime zones

5.1 The three Hamburg / Kingston / NY trio of UNCLOS institutions

5.2 Other key conventions / bodies (UPSC favourites)

6 · India's EEZ, ECS claim & ISA blocks

Maritime Zones Act, 1976

India's Extended Continental Shelf submission

India's three ISA contracts (the Area)

7 · Sagarmala & port-led development

Four pillars of Sagarmala

Key data points

8 · Deep Ocean Mission · Matsya 6000 · Samudrayaan

Matsya 6000 — quick facts

Allied institutions

9 · Blue Economy framework

India's Draft Blue Economy Policy (EAC-PM, Feb 2021)

Numbers to quote

International linkages

10 · Marine pollution & governance

CRZ-2019 (current rules)

11 · Previous-Year Questions (PYQs) — Prelims & Mains, strictly separate

A · Prelims — Direct UPSC questions

Practice Prelims — topic-aligned (one-liners)

B · Mains — Direct UPSC questions (GS 1 & GS 3)

Practice Mains — topic-aligned (with diagram cues)

12 · Revision — 15 key facts to memorise