Physical Geography · Topic 6 · GS Paper 1

Major Landforms — Fluvial · Glacial · Aeolian · Marine · Karst

Every landform on Earth is the product of one or more geomorphic agents — running water, ice, wind, waves, groundwater — acting upon rock over time. This topic catalogues every erosional and depositional landform across the five agent-systems with neatly labelled diagrams, Indian examples, and separate Prelims and Mains question banks. From Himalayan U-valleys to Sundarbans deltas, from Thar barchans to Meghalaya caves — the visual atlas of India's terrain.

Physical Geography · Topic 6 · ~36 min read · Updated June 2026

Why this topic matters for UPSC

Prelims: NCERT-anchored MCQs on V-valley vs U-valley · meander vs ox-bow lake · cirque-arête-horn trio · drumlin orientation · yardang vs zeugen · barchan vs seif dune · cliff-cave-arch-stack sequence · stalactite vs stalagmite · karst features (doline, polje) · Indian examples (Bhagirathi gorge, Hundru Falls, Pichavaram delta).

Mains GS-1: "Describe the fluvial landforms in the stages of a river's life cycle", "Explain glacial erosional features in the Himalayas", "Discuss aeolian landforms in the Thar Desert", "Account for the formation of deltas — why does the Tapi not have one?", "How does karst topography form? Discuss its expressions in India."

Landform — concept & classification by agent
Fluvial landforms (running water)
Glacial landforms (ice)
Aeolian landforms (wind)
Marine landforms (waves & currents)
Karst landforms (groundwater)
Indian landform atlas
Previous Year Questions (Prelims + Mains)
15 must-know facts

1 · Landform — concept & classification by agent NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

NCERT XI · Fundamentals of Physical Geography · Ch 7 "Landforms and their Evolution"

A landform is any recognisable natural feature on Earth's surface defined by its shape, the geological material it is built of, and the process that produced it. Landforms inherit a triad: structure · process · stage (W.M. Davis 1899). Each geomorphic agent leaves a distinctive signature pair — erosional landforms upstream and depositional landforms downstream.

Agent	Domain	Erosional signature	Depositional signature
Running water (fluvial)	Humid regions; perennial & seasonal rivers	V-valley · gorge · canyon · waterfall · meander · pothole	Floodplain · delta · alluvial fan · natural levee · ox-bow lake
Ice (glacial)	High mountains; polar & sub-polar latitudes	Cirque · arête · horn · U-valley · hanging valley · roche moutonnée · fjord	Moraine (lat/med/ter) · drumlin · esker · kame · kettle · outwash plain
Wind (aeolian)	Hot & cold deserts; semi-arid margins	Yardang · zeugen · mushroom rock · ventifact · deflation hollow	Sand dunes (barchan, seif, transverse, star, parabolic) · loess plains
Waves & currents (marine)	Continental margins, islands	Sea cliff · sea cave · arch · stack · stump · wave-cut platform	Beach · spit · bar · tombolo · lagoon · cuspate foreland
Groundwater (karst)	Limestone / dolomite bedrock terrains	Sinkhole · doline · uvala · polje · cave · swallow hole	Stalactite · stalagmite · pillar · travertine · flowstone

Mnemonic"FG-AMK" — Fluvial · Glacial · Aeolian · Marine · Karst (five major agent-systems).

Why each agent leaves a signature shape: shapes arise from the agent's erosional mechanism (river abrasion grinds round potholes; glacier plucking creates flat-bottomed troughs; wind sandblast cuts streamlined yardangs) plus its energy distribution (river concentrated in narrow channel → V; glacier broad along valley → U).

2 · Fluvial landforms (running water) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

Running water is the most universal agent of land sculpting — affecting roughly 70% of Earth's land surface. The work of a river evolves through three classical Davisian stages: youthful (vertical erosion dominant), mature (balance), old (lateral & deposition dominant).

2.1 · Three-stage river evolution

Fig 6.1 · River life cycle in three stages + longitudinal profile. Panel A: youthful stage with V-valley, waterfall, pothole, interlocking spurs. Panel B: mature stage with meander, point bar, cut bank. Panel C: old stage with ox-bow lake, natural levee, distributary delta. Panel D: graded long-profile concave-up from source to mouth. Adapted from NCERT XI Fig 7.4–7.6.

2.2 · Fluvial erosional landforms — catalogue

Landform	Formation	Indian example
V-valley	Vertical down-cutting by youthful river	Upper Ganga, Brahmaputra near Tibet
Gorge	Narrow, deep, steep-walled V-valley in hard rock	Bhagirathi gorge (Uttarkashi), Indus gorge (Gilgit)
Canyon	Wider, deeper gorge in arid sedimentary rocks	Gandikota (AP, on Pennar — "Grand Canyon of India")
Waterfall / Cataract	Resistant ledge meets weak rock; plunge pool below	Jog Falls (Sharavati, Karnataka, 253 m) · Hundru (Subarnarekha) · Dudhsagar (Mandovi) · Athirappilly (Chalakudy)
Rapids	Series of small steep drops over alternating hard/soft rock	Most Himalayan streams in foothills
Pothole	Circular pit drilled by eddy + pebble abrasion	Nighoj potholes (Kukadi river, Maharashtra)
Meander	Sinuous bend on mature plain — concave bank erodes, convex deposits	Ganga in Bihar–WB · Brahmaputra braids in Assam
Incised meander	Meander uplifted & entrenched into bedrock	Chambal (in MP/Raj badlands)
River terrace	Old floodplain abandoned after rejuvenation	Yamuna terraces near Delhi · Sutlej terraces

2.3 · Fluvial depositional landforms

Landform	Formation	Indian example
Alluvial fan	Cone of detritus where mountain stream debouches onto plain (sudden energy loss)	Kosi mega-fan (Bihar — world's largest, ~15,000 km²)
Natural levee	Coarse sediment dropped at flood overbank → raised river bank	Ganga, Hugli, lower Brahmaputra
Floodplain	Annual silt deposition over flat valley floor	Indo-Gangetic plain (largest in the world, ~250 m alluvium)
Ox-bow lake	Cut-off meander loop abandoned when channel takes a shortcut	Many along Ganga in Bihar; "kol" in Bengal
Braided channel	Multiple shifting channels around mid-stream bars (high-sediment, low-cohesion banks)	Brahmaputra, Kosi
Delta	Distributary fan at river mouth where sediment supply > tidal/wave removal	Arcuate: Ganga–Brahmaputra (Sundarbans, largest) · Bird-foot: none in India · Cuspate: Krishna, Godavari (joint) · Tide-dominated: Mahanadi
Estuary (not a true delta)	Tidal flooding overpowers sediment supply — sea drowns river mouth	Narmada & Tapi — no delta despite huge discharge (faulted west-coast, narrow shelf, strong tides)

UPSC trap — why no delta for Narmada/Tapi? Three reasons: (1) Both flow through narrow rift valleys (graben between Vindhya–Satpura) with little sediment compared to length; (2) West coast is faulted & submerged with a narrow shelf — sediment drops into deep water; (3) Arabian Sea tides are strong → flush sediment away. Result = funnel-shaped estuary, not arcuate delta.

Delta types — mnemonic "ABCT"Arcuate (Ganga, Nile) · Bird-foot (Mississippi) · Cuspate (Tiber, Krishna) · Tide-dominated (Mahanadi, Fly).

3 · Glacial landforms (ice) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

A glacier is a slowly moving mass of ice formed by snow accumulation over years exceeding ablation. Two types: alpine (valley glaciers in high mountains) and continental (ice sheets covering Antarctica + Greenland). Glaciers erode by plucking (freezing onto + lifting rock blocks) and abrasion (rock-flour grinding) → striations + polished surfaces.

Fig 6.2 · Alpine glaciation dual-view. Panel A: active glacier with horn, arête, col, cirque (filled), main glacier with lateral / medial / terminal moraines, hanging valley tributary, truncated spur. Panel B: after retreat — U-valley, tarn (cirque lake), drumlin (blunt-end upstream), esker, kettle hole, roche moutonnée, hanging-valley waterfall. Adapted from NCERT XI Fig 7.7–7.8.

3.1 · Glacial erosional landforms

Landform	Formation	Example
Cirque (corrie / cwm)	Arm-chair-shaped hollow at glacier head; backwall eroded by plucking + freeze-thaw	Suru cirques (Ladakh) · Sonmarg cirques
Tarn	Lake occupying cirque after glacier retreat	Roopkund (Uttarakhand) · Manimahesh (HP)
Arête	Knife-edge ridge between two adjacent cirques	Pir Panjal ridges
Horn	Pyramidal peak where 3+ cirques converge	Matterhorn (Alps) · Shivling (Garhwal) · K2
Col	Pass / saddle where two cirque headwalls intersect	Many Himalayan high-altitude passes
U-valley (trough)	Steep-sided, flat-floored valley shaped by valley glacier	Lahaul, Spiti, Zanskar valleys
Hanging valley	Tributary U-valley floor above main valley → waterfall	Many in Kashmir valleys; Yosemite (USA)
Truncated spur	Ridge-end sheared off as glacier widens valley	Common along U-valleys
Roche moutonnée	Asymmetric rock knob — smooth (abraded) up-glacier, jagged (plucked) down-glacier	Scandinavian shield, Lake District
Fjord	Drowned U-valley flooded by sea	Norway, Chile, Alaska (none in India)
Crag and tail	Resistant crag on up-glacier side + tail of softer material protected behind	Edinburgh Castle Rock

3.2 · Glacial depositional landforms

Landform	Formation	Example
Till	Unsorted, angular debris dropped directly by ice (boulder clay)	Northern Europe, North America widespread
Lateral moraine	Debris ridge along glacier sides (from valley walls)	Gangotri glacier laterals (Garhwal)
Medial moraine	Debris ridge in middle where two glaciers join (two laterals merge)	Siachen, Baltoro glaciers
Terminal (end) moraine	Crescent of debris at glacier snout — marks farthest advance	Pleistocene end-moraines along N European plain
Ground moraine	Sheet of till smeared over valley floor	Most glaciated valleys
Drumlin	Streamlined egg-shaped hill of till; blunt end up-glacier, tapered end down-glacier	Northern Ireland ("basket of eggs"), Wisconsin
Esker	Sinuous ridge of stratified gravel — deposit of subglacial meltwater stream	Finland, Sweden
Kame	Mound of stratified sand/gravel deposited at glacier edge	Northern temperate latitudes
Kettle	Depression where a buried ice block melted, often water-filled	Cape Cod (USA), Pleistocene plains
Outwash plain (sandur)	Stratified sands+gravels spread by braided meltwater beyond terminal moraine	Icelandic sandurs · German Sander
Varve	Annual pair of sediment laminae (coarse summer + fine winter) in glacial lake	Used for chronology — Sweden, NE USA

Mnemonic — glacial erosion trio"CAT" — Cirque · Arête · "Top" (horn). And depositional sequence from glacier head to snout = lateral → medial → terminal → ground moraine.

News 2024Himalayan glacier retreat: WIHG Dehradun + ISRO study (2024) shows the Gangotri glacier snout retreated ~22 m/yr (1976–2022), exposing fresh moraine ridges. NDMA flagged 188 glacial lakes (formed behind freshly-exposed terminal moraines) as GLOF (glacial-lake outburst flood) risks; Chamoli 2021 disaster a textbook case. Source: WIHG annual report; NDMA GLOF Risk Atlas 2024.

4 · Aeolian landforms (wind) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

Wind is the dominant geomorphic agent in arid & semi-arid regions (Thar, Sahara, Gobi, Atacama, central Australia) where vegetation cover is sparse and surface materials are loose + dry. Wind erodes by deflation (lifting + removing loose grains) and abrasion (sandblasting bedrock with carried particles, most effective up to ~2 m above ground).

Fig 6.3 · Aeolian landforms. Panel A: erosional — mushroom rock (max abrasion 1–2 m above ground), zeugen (cap-rock pedestal), yardang (streamlined ridge), ventifacts, deflation hollow. Panel B: dune types in plan view — barchan (horns downwind, limited sand), transverse (perp to wind), seif/longitudinal (parallel), parabolic (horns upwind, vegetation-anchored), star (multi-arm). Adapted from NCERT XI Fig 7.13–7.14.

4.1 · Aeolian erosional landforms

Landform	Formation	Example
Deflation hollow / Blowout	Wind lifts loose sand → shallow basin	Qattara Depression (Egypt, −133 m); Big Hollow (Wyoming)
Mushroom rock (Gara)	Abrasion most effective 1–2 m above ground → narrows stalk; broader top remains	Western Thar (Jaisalmer outcrops); Tassili (Algeria)
Pedestal rock	Similar to mushroom but cap-rock harder → broader top	Thar Desert outcrops
Zeugen	Hard cap + soft underlayer in alternating beds → ridges separated by furrows	Central Asian, Saharan platforms
Yardang	Streamlined ridge of softer rock aligned parallel to prevailing wind	Lut Desert (Iran), Tarim Basin (China)
Inselberg	Isolated resistant residual hill in arid plain (also a fluvio-aeolian product)	Aravalli outliers; Australia's Uluru
Desert pavement	Lag of coarse pebbles left after fines deflated	"Reg" surfaces in Sahara, Thar margins
Ventifact	Pebble faceted by wind abrasion on multiple sides	Cold + hot deserts

4.2 · Aeolian depositional landforms — dune morphology table

Dune	Plan shape	Wind regime	Sand supply
Barchan	Crescent · horns downwind	Unimodal (one direction)	Limited
Transverse	Long ridges perpendicular to wind	Unimodal	Abundant
Seif (Longitudinal)	Long parallel ridges aligned with wind	Bimodal (two converging winds)	Limited–moderate
Parabolic	U-shape · horns upwind	Unimodal + vegetation-anchored horns	Coastal/semi-arid
Star	Multiple arms radiating from a central peak	Multi-directional / variable	Abundant
Dome	Circular mound, no slip face	Very strong unidirectional	Variable

Quick ruleBarchan vs Parabolic: Barchan horns point DOWNwind (no vegetation, free crescent shapes). Parabolic horns point UPwind (vegetation grabs horn-ends, central nose advances).

4.3 · Loess

Loess = wind-blown silt deposit (yellowish, fine, calcareous, vertical-walled when cut). Thickness up to 300 m in Loess Plateau of China (Huang-tu — derived from Gobi/Mongolian deflation). Other loess regions: Pampas (Argentina), Mississippi valley, Central Europe. India: minor loess patches in Punjab–Kashmir; no major loess plateau.

5 · Marine landforms (waves & currents) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

Coasts are shaped by waves (hydraulic action + abrasion + solution + attrition), tides, currents, and longshore drift. Resulting landforms split into erosional on rocky/cliffed coasts and depositional on low/sandy coasts.

Fig 6.4 · Marine landforms. Panel A: erosional cliff-retreat sequence — cliff → sea cave + notch → sea arch → stack → stump (with wave-cut platform). Panel B: plan view of depositional forms — beach, spit (with recurved hook), bay-mouth bar + lagoon, tombolo, cuspate foreland. Adapted from NCERT XI Fig 7.15–7.17 + Strahler.

5.1 · Marine erosional landforms

Landform	Formation	Example
Sea cliff	Wave hydraulic action + abrasion undermine rock face	Varkala cliffs (Kerala) · Konkan coast cliffs · Dover (UK)
Wave-cut notch	Horizontal indentation at high-tide level	Common at base of cliffs
Sea cave	Widened notch → cave	Elephanta Caves (Mumbai harbour) · Borra fluvial-marine combined
Sea arch	Two caves on opposite sides of headland meet	Natural Arch (Tirumala AP) · Devil's Bridge (Wales)
Stack	Arch roof collapses → isolated pillar	St Mary's Island (Karnataka) · Old Man of Hoy (Scotland)
Stump	Stack eroded further → low residual rock	Various worldwide
Wave-cut platform	Bench at base of retreating cliff (low-tide visible)	Common along rocky coasts
Blowhole	Cave roof opening → spray erupts when wave compresses air	Kiama (Australia)

5.2 · Marine depositional landforms

Landform	Formation	Indian example
Beach	Sand/pebble accumulation between high & low tide	Marina (Chennai, 13 km — Asia's longest urban beach) · Goa · Kovalam · Puri
Spit	Narrow sandy ridge extending from headland into sea (longshore drift)	Rameswaram (Adam's Bridge/Ram Setu) · Dhanushkodi spit
Bar	Submerged or emergent sand ridge offshore (parallel to coast)	Offshore bars along east coast
Bay-mouth bar	Spit grows across bay mouth → encloses lagoon	Chilika (Odisha, India's largest brackish lagoon) · Pulicat (TN-AP)
Lagoon	Shallow water body enclosed by bar/reef	Chilika · Pulicat · Vembanad (Kerala)
Tombolo	Spit/bar links offshore island to mainland	Rameswaram (Pamban Island)
Cuspate foreland	Triangular sand projection where two longshore drifts converge	Dungeness (UK); minor on Indian east coast
Mudflat / Salt marsh	Intertidal sediment plain	Sundarbans · Rann of Kachchh

Chilika vs Pulicat — both lagoons but different: Chilika (1,100 km²) is India's largest brackish-water lagoon, separated from Bay of Bengal by a sand bar; Ramsar site (1981). Pulicat (~250 km² active surface) is the second-largest, straddling TN-AP, separated by Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch site). Both formed by spit-bar enclosure of bays.

6 · Karst landforms (groundwater) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

Karst topography develops on soluble bedrock — primarily limestone, also dolomite, gypsum — through carbonation: CaCO₃ + H₂CO₃ → Ca(HCO₃)₂ (soluble). Named after the Karst (Kras) Plateau in Slovenia. Requires (a) thick, fractured, pure limestone (b) humid climate with CO₂-rich rain (c) sufficient relief for groundwater flow.

Fig 6.5 · Karst topography dual-view. Panel A: surface — lapies/grikes, sinkhole/doline, uvala, polje, swallow hole + sinking stream, tower karst. Panel B: subsurface — limestone bedrock with bedding planes + joints, cave chamber with stalactites (from roof, C-for-Ceiling), stalagmites (from floor, G-for-Ground), pillar (joined), water table, resurgence spring at base. Adapted from NCERT XI Fig 7.18.

6.1 · Surface karst landforms

Landform	Formation	Example
Lapies / Grikes	Joints widened at surface by solution → fluted limestone pavement	The Burren (Ireland); Mendip Hills (UK)
Sinkhole / Doline	Surface depression from solution along joint intersection (collapse or solution type)	Florida sinkholes; Mexican cenotes
Uvala	Coalesced (joined) sinkholes	Slovenian Karst Plateau
Polje	Large flat-floored basin (km-scale) — collapse + lateral solution	Slovenia, Croatia (poljes farmed)
Swallow hole (Ponor)	Where surface stream disappears underground via a sinkhole	Yorkshire Dales
Karst window	Roof of underground stream collapses → river briefly visible	Kentucky karst (USA)
Tower karst (Mogote)	Tropical karst: steep-sided residual limestone towers	Guilin (China), Halong Bay (Vietnam), Krabi (Thailand)
Blind valley	Surface valley ending abruptly at a swallow hole	Karst regions globally

6.2 · Subsurface karst landforms

Landform	Formation	Example
Cave / Cavern	Dissolution of limestone along bedding planes + joints below water table; later air-filled	Borra (AP), Belum (AP, India's 2nd longest, 3,229 m), Krem Liat Prah (Meghalaya, India's longest, 31 km), Mawsmai (Meghalaya), Kutumsar (Chhattisgarh)
Stalactite	Calcite deposit hanging from cave roof — drip-by-drip CaCO₃ precipitation as water loses CO₂	Inside all cave systems above
Stalagmite	Calcite deposit rising from cave floor (where drip lands)	Often paired with stalactites above
Pillar / Column	Stalactite and stalagmite meet	Mature cave systems
Flowstone / Travertine	Sheet-like calcite from flowing/sheeting water	Pamukkale (Turkey); Plitvice (Croatia)
Helictite	Twisted, gravity-defying mineral growth	Rare cave decoration

Memory aidStalacTite hangs from Top (ceiling) · StalagMite rises from Mound (ground). Or: "tights come down, mites grow up".

News 2026Meghalaya cave survey: Meghalaya Adventurers Association + cavers continue annual expeditions (since 1992). 2024 update logs Krem Liat Prah-Umim-Labit system (East Jaintia) at 31.4 km — Indian sub-continent's longest cave; combined Meghalaya cave network exceeds 500 km of mapped passages. Government considering geo-heritage protection. Source: Meghalaya Adventurers Association 2024 expedition report.

7 · Indian landform atlas GS-1

India presents every one of the five agent-systems in textbook richness — Himalayan glaciers, Indo-Gangetic floodplain, Thar dunes, peninsular karst, and a 7,517 km coastline. The atlas below catalogues the signature landforms by region.

Region	Agent	Signature landforms
Higher Himalaya	Glacial · fluvial	Cirques, arêtes, horns (Shivling, K2) · U-valleys (Lahaul, Spiti, Zanskar) · tarns (Roopkund, Manimahesh) · moraines (Gangotri, Siachen)
Lesser & Outer Himalaya	Fluvial · mass movement	Gorges (Bhagirathi, Alaknanda) · waterfalls (Kempty, Bheemlat) · landslide scars · river terraces
Bhabar–Tarai foothills	Fluvial	Alluvial fans (Kosi mega-fan) · braided streams · seasonal swamps
Indo-Gangetic Plain	Fluvial	Floodplains, levees, ox-bow lakes, meanders, distributary deltas (Sundarbans)
Thar Desert (Raj)	Aeolian · fluvial-relict	Seif (longitudinal) dunes · barchans (south) · mushroom rocks · deflation basins · ephemeral playa lakes (Sambhar, Pachpadra)
Rann of Kachchh	Marine · aeolian	Mudflats (salt marsh, Great + Little Rann) · uplifted shorelines (Allah Bund 1819)
Deccan plateau interior	Fluvial · mass movement	Black soils on basalt · gorges (Gokak), waterfalls (Jog, Dudhsagar, Athirappilly)
Eastern Ghats / inselbergs	Fluvial · aeolian	Granite domes, inselbergs (Hampi, Tirupati), tors
Western Ghats	Fluvial · mass movement	Escarpment edge with waterfalls; landslide scars (Wayanad, Idukki)
Chhota Nagpur plateau	Fluvial	Waterfalls (Hundru, Dassam) · pediments · inselbergs
Eastern coast	Marine + fluvial	Deltas (Mahanadi, Krishna-Godavari, Cauvery), lagoons (Chilika, Pulicat), spits (Dhanushkodi)
Western coast	Marine	Cliffs (Varkala) · sea caves (Elephanta) · backwaters & lagoons (Vembanad)
Meghalaya, AP, Chhattisgarh limestone	Karst	Caves (Krem Liat Prah, Mawsmai, Borra, Belum, Kutumsar) · sinkholes · stalactite/stalagmite chambers
Andaman & Nicobar	Marine · volcanic	Coral atolls, beaches, fringing reefs, volcanic islands (Barren, Narcondam)
Lakshadweep	Marine (biotic)	Coral atolls (only atoll group in India) · lagoons

India's superlatives at a glance: Largest floodplain — Indo-Gangetic (250 m alluvium thick). Largest mega-fan — Kosi (~15,000 km²). Highest waterfall — Kunchikal (455 m, Karnataka). Largest delta — Sundarbans (75,000 km² combined with Bangladesh). Longest cave — Krem Liat Prah (31 km, Meghalaya). Largest brackish lagoon — Chilika (1,100 km²). Only atoll group — Lakshadweep. Only active volcano — Barren Island.

Mini-reference

Fluviallandforms by running water
Glaciallandforms by ice
Aeolianlandforms by wind
Marine / Littorallandforms by waves
Karstlandforms by groundwater
V-valleyyouthful river vertical erosion
Gorgenarrow steep V-valley (Bhagirathi)
Canyonwider deep gorge (Grand Canyon)
Waterfallresistant ledge breaks gradient
Potholecircular pit by eddy + abrasion
Meandermature river sinuous bend
Ox-bow lakecut-off meander
Floodplainsilt-build flat valley floor
Leveenatural raised river bank
Deltadistributary-built river mouth
Alluvial fancone of detritus at mountain foot
Estuarytidal river mouth (no delta)
Cirquearm-chair glacial hollow
Arêteknife-edge ridge between cirques
Hornpyramidal peak (Matterhorn)
U-valleyglaciated trough
Hanging valleytributary above main U-valley
Roche moutonnéeasymmetric ice-smoothed rock
Moraineglacial debris ridge
Drumlinegg-shaped till mound
Eskersinuous gravel ridge from sub-glacial stream
Kettledepression from buried ice block
Outwash plainmelt-water deposited sands
Yardangwind-grooved ridge
Zeugencap-rock pedestal
Mushroom rocknarrow-stalk wind-eroded rock
Ventifactwind-faceted pebble
Barchancrescent dune (horns downwind)
Seiflongitudinal/sword dune
Transverse duneridge perpendicular to wind
Loesswind-blown silt deposit
Sea cliffwave-cut vertical rock face
Sea cavewave-eroded cavity in cliff
Sea archcave-through cliff headland
Stackisolated rock pillar from arch collapse
Stumpworn-down stack
Wave-cut platformflat bench at cliff base
Beachsand/pebble shore deposit
Spitnarrow sand bar from headland
Barsubmerged/emergent sand ridge
Tombolospit connecting island to mainland
Lagoonenclosed shallow water body
Sinkhole / Dolinekarst depression
Uvalacoalesced sinkholes
Poljelarge karst basin
Stalactitedown-from-roof carbonate
Stalagmiteup-from-floor carbonate
Pillarjoined stalactite + stalagmite

Keyword cloud

fluvialV-valleygorgecanyonwaterfallcataractrapidspotholeplunge pool meanderincised meandercut bankpoint barox-bow lakefloodplainnatural levee alluvial fandeltaarcuate deltabird-foot deltacuspate deltaestuary SundarbansKrishna deltaMahanadi deltaBhagirathiHundruJog Falls glacialalpine glaciercontinental glaciercirquetarnarêtehorncolnunatak U-valleyhanging valleytruncated spurroche moutonnéecrag and tailfjord morainelateralmedialterminalrecessionalground moraine drumlineskerkamekettleoutwash plain aeoliandeflationabrasionblowout yardangzeugenmushroom rockpedestal rockventifactdesert pavement barchanseiflongitudinal dunetransverse dunestar duneparabolic duneloess TharRann of Kachchh marinelittoralsea cliffsea cavearchstackstumpwave-cut platform beachspitbarbay-mouth bartombololagooncuspate foreland ChilikaPulicatMarina Beach karstlimestonecarbonationsinkholedolineuvalapoljeswallow hole cavecavernstalactitestalagmitepillartravertine Meghalaya cavesBelumBorra GS Paper 1

Self-check (10 Qs)

Which is older — V-valley or U-valley?
Difference between meander and ox-bow lake?
Name the trio: cirque–arête–?
Which dune has its horns pointing downwind?
What is a stack made of?
Lagoon at Chilika or Pulicat — both?
Stalactite or stalagmite — which grows down from roof?
Which river has no delta despite a large discharge — Narmada/Tapi or Ganga?
Drumlin orientation tells what?
India's largest cave system?

Major Landforms — Fluvial · Glacial · Aeolian · Marine · Karst

Why this topic matters for UPSC

Contents

1 · Landform — concept & classification by agent NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

2 · Fluvial landforms (running water) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

2.1 · Three-stage river evolution

2.2 · Fluvial erosional landforms — catalogue

2.3 · Fluvial depositional landforms

3 · Glacial landforms (ice) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

3.1 · Glacial erosional landforms

3.2 · Glacial depositional landforms

4 · Aeolian landforms (wind) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

4.1 · Aeolian erosional landforms

4.2 · Aeolian depositional landforms — dune morphology table

4.3 · Loess

5 · Marine landforms (waves & currents) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

5.1 · Marine erosional landforms

5.2 · Marine depositional landforms

6 · Karst landforms (groundwater) NCERT XI Ch 7GS-1

6.1 · Surface karst landforms

6.2 · Subsurface karst landforms

7 · Indian landform atlas GS-1