Medieval Chapter 07: Marathas & Regional States (c. 1674–1761 CE) | UPSC Medieval History Master Notes

Ground Zero: Historical Storyline & Analytical Compass
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj & The Ashtapradhan Council
The Peshwa Era & The Maratha Confederacy Pentarchy
The Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE): Causes & Consequences
18th-Century Regional Successor States (Bengal, Awadh, Mysore, Punjab)
Mains Value-Addition: 30-Second Diagrams
High-Yield UPSC Maratha & Regional State Terminology
Mains 360° Analytical Framework: Swarajya Statecraft vs. Confederacy Decay
Multi-Dimensional Contemporary Linkages (2020–2026)
Complete Prelims PYQ Archive (1995–2026) [8 MCQs]
Complete Mains GS-1 Archive (1995–2026) [3 Questions]
High-Yield Rapid Recall Hub

🎬 The Historical Storyline: Swarajya, Guerrilla Warfare, Peshwa Hegemony & The Panipat Tragedy

⏳ The Maratha Epoch: c. 1674 CE to 1761 CE

1. Chhatrapati Shivaji & Maratha Swarajya: Shivaji's guerrilla warfare (Ganimi Kava), hill-fort strategy, coronation at Raigad (1674), Ashta Pradhan council, and imposition of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi levies.

2. The Peshwa Era & Pan-Indian Expansion: Under Baji Rao I and Balaji Baji Rao, Maratha cavalry expanded across Gujarat, Malwa, and northern India, transforming the confederacy into India's dominant 18th-century power.

3. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) & Regional States: Ahmad Shah Abdali's crushing defeat of the Marathas at Panipat, facilitating regional fragmentation (Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawabs of Awadh/Bengal, Mysore) and British ascendancy.

🧭 Ground Zero Analytical Compass: 3 Core Pillars for UPSC

1. Swarajya Statecraft

Shivaji's Ashtapradhan council, elimination of feudal intermediaries, and the dual external tax mechanisms of Chauth (25%) and Sardeshmukhi (10%).

2. Peshwas & Panipat

Baji Rao I's cavalry blitzkrieg and the Maratha Confederacy vs. Abdali's Zamburak camel swivel-guns at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE).

3. Regional Modernization

Post-Mughal successor polities: Mysore's rocket artillery under Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh's *Fauz-i-Khas*, and Hyderabad's *Asaf Jahi* statecraft.

1. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj & The Ashtapradhan Council

💡 Active Self-Test: The ministerial portfolio or administrative pillar is visible. Tap any blurred cell to test your recall on official titles, duties, and operational mechanics, or click the button above to reveal all:

Ministerial Office / Pillar	Official Sanskrit / Persian Title	Core Departmental Duties & Operational Rules
1. Prime Minister	Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan)	Looked after general administration, represented the king in his absence, and affixed the royal seal to state charters. (First held by Moropant Trimbak Pingle).
2. Finance Minister	Amatya (Majumdar)	Audited state income and expenditure accounts and managed revenue collections. (Held by Ramchandra Pant Amatya).
3. Home & Intelligence	Waqia-Navis (Mantri)	Managed royal daily diaries, palace proceedings, intelligence networks, and internal security.
4. Royal Correspondence	Sachiv (Shuru-Navis / Chitnis)	Drafted royal edicts (Farmans), checked royal correspondence, and audited pargana revenue accounts.
5. Foreign Affairs	Sumant (Dabir)	Handled diplomatic relations, hosted foreign ambassadors, and advised the king on war and peace.
6. Commander-in-Chief	Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat)	Supreme commander of the army, responsible for recruitment, troop training, cavalry discipline, and field operations. (Held by Netaji Palkar & Hambirrao Mohite).
7. Chief Justice & Religion	Nyayadhish (Civil/Military Justice) & Panditrao (Danadhyaksha) (Charity & Endowments).	Nyayadhish managed legal trials based on Hindu law; Panditrao distributed religious charities and enforced moral conduct. (Only 2 ministers exempt from military field command).
8. Revenue: Chauth & Sardeshmukhi	Chauth (25%) & Sardeshmukhi (10%)	• Chauth: 1/4th (25%) of standard revenue paid by neighbouring non-Maratha territories as protection tax against Maratha raids. • Sardeshmukhi: Additional 1/10th (10%) levy claimed by Shivaji as the hereditary Chief Headman (Sardeshmukh) of Maharashtra.

2. The Peshwa Era & The Maratha Confederacy Pentarchy

💡 Active Self-Test: The Peshwa or Confederacy House is visible. Tap any blurred cell to test your recall on sovereigns, capitals, and historic campaigns, or click the button above to reveal all:

Peshwa / Confederacy House	Sovereign Ruler & Capital Seat	Key Military Campaigns & Geopolitical Significance
1. Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720 CE)	First hereditary Peshwa (Chitpavan Brahmin from Konkan) under Chhatrapati Shahu at Satara/Pune.	Signed the landmark Treaty of Delhi (1719 CE) with Sayyid Brothers ("Magna Carta of Maratha Dominion"), securing imperial recognition for Chauth/Sardeshmukhi across six Deccan Subas.
2. Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720–1740 CE)	"The Thorny Conqueror" • Undefeated master of rapid mobile cavalry warfare; capital at Pune (Shaniwar Wada).	• Propounded Northern Expansion: "Strike at the trunk of the withering tree and branches will fall." • Crushed Nizam-ul-Mulk in the Battle of Palkhed (1728 CE) using strategic encirclement. • Defeated Mughal forces at Battle of Bhopal (1737) and raided Delhi; captured Bassein from Portuguese (1739).
3. Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (1740–1761 CE)	Third Peshwa; assumed absolute supreme executive authority via Sangola Agreement (1750 CE).	Expanded Maratha control into Punjab (captured Lahore and Attock in 1758); Maratha Empire reached its greatest geographical extent, followed by tragedy at Panipat (1761).
4. The Five Houses of the Confederacy	1. Peshwas: Pune. 2. Gaekwads: Baroda. 3. Holkars: Indore (Ahilyabai Holkar). 4. Scindias / Sindhias: Gwalior (Mahadji Scindia). 5. Bhonsles: Nagpur (Raghuji Bhonsle).	• Ahilyabai Holkar (1765–1795 CE): Saintly queen ruler famed for reconstructing temples across India (Kashi Vishwanath, Somnath). • Mahadji Scindia: Military genius who modernized army with French general Benoit de Boigne; restored Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to Delhi throne.

3. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761 CE)

The climactic clash between the expanding Maratha Empire and the Afghan Durrani Empire over the hegemony of Northern India:

🚩 Opposing Forces & Leadership

• Maratha Confederacy: Commanded by Sadashivrao Bhau (cousin of Peshwa) and young Prince Vishwasrao; Europeanized artillery under Ibrahim Khan Gardi.
• Afghan Coalition: Commanded by Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), allied with Najib-ud-Daulah (Rohilla) and Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh).

⚠️ Causes of Maratha Defeat

1. Severed Supply Lines: Abdali cut off food supplies for 2 months, starving Maratha troops and horses.
2. Heavy Civilian Burden: Thousands of non-combatant pilgrims, women, and priests in camp.
3. Diplomatic Isolation: Alienated Rajputs and Jats (Raja Suraj Mal withdrew support).
4. Tactical Superiority: Abdali's mobile Zamburak (swivel-guns mounted on camels) and elite reserve cavalry.

📜 Historical Significance & Aftermath

The Famous Merchant Code Dispatch: "Two pearls have been dissolved, twenty-seven gold mohurs have been lost, and of the silver and copper the total cannot be cast up."
Geopolitical Consequence: Panipat did not decide who was to rule India, but rather who was NOT to rule India. By decimating Maratha power and keeping Afghans from settling in Delhi, it created a massive political vacuum that cleared the highway for the rise of the British East India Company.

4. 18th-Century Regional Successor States

💡 Active Self-Test: The regional state is visible. Tap any blurred cell to test your recall on founders, modernizing reforms, and military resistance, or click the button above to reveal all:

Regional State & Capital	Founder & Landmark Sovereigns	Institutional Reforms, Military Innovations & Legacy
1. Bengal (1717 CE) (Capital: Murshidabad)	• Murshid Quli Khan (1717–1727 CE): Founder. • Alivardi Khan (1740–1756 CE). • Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756–1757 CE).	• Reorganized land revenue into Ijara (revenue farming) system. • Maintained tight control over European trading factories until the Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757 CE).
2. Awadh (1722 CE) (Capital: Faizabad → Lucknow)	• Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722–1739 CE): Founder. • Safdarjung (appointed Imperial Wazir). • Shuja-ud-Daulah (Battle of Buxar 1764). • Asaf-ud-Daula: Built Bara Imambara in Lucknow.	Conducted fresh revenue settlements, curbed rebellious big Zamindars, and developed the flourishing Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb (syncretic Awadhi culture, Kathak dance, and Urdu poetry).
3. Hyderabad (1724 CE) (Capital: Hyderabad)	Mir Qamar-ud-din Chin Qilich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I) • Founded the Asaf Jahi Dynasty.	Defeated Mughal Subedar Mubariz Khan at the Battle of Shakarkhelda (1724 CE); created an autonomous, efficiently administered state in the Deccan without formally severing ties with Delhi.
4. Mysore (1761 CE) (Capital: Srirangapatna)	• Hyder Ali (1761–1782 CE). • Tipu Sultan ("Tiger of Mysore" • 1782–1799 CE).	• Established modern French-assisted artillery arsenal at Dindigul (1755). • Tipu Sultan: Pioneered military iron-cased Mysorean Rockets; set up a Board of Admiralty and modern naval fleet; planted a 'Tree of Liberty' and joined Jacobin Club; authored military manual Fathul Mujahidin; died heroically in Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799).
5. Punjab / Sikh Empire (1799 CE) (Capital: Lahore)	Maharaja Ranjit Singh ("Lion of Punjab" • 1799–1839 CE) from the Sukerchakia Misl.	• Unified 12 independent Sikh Misls. • Created Fauz-i-Khas (modern army trained by French/Italian generals Allard, Ventura, and Court). • Acquired Koh-i-Noor diamond; donated gold to cover the dome of Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar.

Topper's 30-Second Exam Diagrams: Maratha Confederacy & Ashtapradhan Flow

+1.5 to 2 Marks in GS-1 Mains

High-scoring structural schematics to reproduce in Mains answers for instant analytical clarity:

1. The Maratha Confederacy Pentarchy

Mains Caption: Pentarchic structure of the 18th-century Maratha Confederacy.

2. Swarajya Revenue Flow: Chauth & Sardeshmukhi

Mains Caption: Fiscal architecture of Shivaji's internal revenue and external tribute extraction.

High-Yield UPSC Maratha & Regional State Terminology

Diagnostic Term	Epigraphic & Historical Definition	UPSC Exam Context & Significance
Ganimi Kava	Guerrilla warfare tactics pioneered by Shivaji Maharaj in Sahyadris.	Utilized terrain familiarity, night ambushes, and swift cavalry hit-and-run attacks.
Bargir & Shiledar	Dual cavalry divisions in the Maratha army.	Bargirs were provided state horses and arms; Shiledars brought their own horses and weapons.
Chauth & Sardeshmukhi	Dual external levies collected by Marathas.	Chauth (25% protection money) and Sardeshmukhi (10% hereditary overlordship claim).
Zamburak	Light swivel-gun mounted on the back of a camel.	Decisive tactical weapon deployed by Ahmad Shah Abdali at Third Panipat (1761 CE).
Fauz-i-Khas	Modern Europeanized elite military corps of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.	Trained by Napoleonic French and Italian veterans (Allard, Ventura, Court).
Fathul Mujahidin	Military manual on rocket artillery authored by Tipu Sultan.	Pioneered the tactical operational deployment of iron-cased Mysorean rockets.

Mains 360° Analytical Framework: Swarajya Statecraft vs. Confederacy Decay

1. Shivaji's Centralized Swarajya: Shivaji established a progressive, welfare-oriented state (*Swarajya*). By paying cash salaries, eliminating oppressive hereditary intermediaries (*Deshmukhs*), and creating the *Ashtapradhan* council, he built a disciplined, national polity.

2. The Feudal Degeneration under the Confederacy: Under the later Peshwas, Shivaji's centralized standing army gave way to the *Saranjami* (feudal Jagir) system. The five confederacy houses (Peshwa, Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle) pursued narrow regional ambitions, quarreling among themselves and failing to forge a united national front against Abdali and the British.

3. The 18th-Century "Dark Age" Historiographical Debate: Colonial historians characterized 18th-century India as an anarchic "Dark Age" following Mughal collapse. Modern Indian historiography reveals it was a vibrant period of regional state-building, commercial dynamism, and military modernization (Mysore's rockets, Sikh Fauz-i-Khas, and Awadhi cultural efflorescence).

Multi-Dimensional Contemporary Linkages (2020–2026): The 5-Pillar UPSC Matrix

Maratha hill-fort UNESCO inscriptions, cultural repatriation, and military history intersect with contemporary governance:

🏛️ Pillar 1: UNESCO World Heritage (Maratha Military Landscapes 2024–25)

India's Official UNESCO Nomination: 12 historic Maratha hill and coastal forts (Raigad, Shivneri, Sindhudurg, Pratapgarh, Gingee) showcasing guerrilla military engineering.

🌍 Pillar 2: Cultural Heritage Diplomacy (Repatriation of Wagh Nakh)

Repatriation from London (2024): Maharashtra government bringing back the 17th-century steel *Wagh Nakh* (Tiger Claws) used by Shivaji against Afzal Khan.

🏗️ Pillar 3: Commemorative Infrastructure (350th Coronation Anniversary 2024)

Raigad Fort Conservation Master Plan: Central and state initiatives developing laser lighting, trekking infrastructure, and heritage museums at Raigad.

⚖️ Pillar 4: Judicial Protection of Sahyadri Hill Forts

Bombay High Court PIL on Fort Encroachments: Banning unauthorized modern concrete constructions and plastic waste on historic Maratha fort precincts.

🔬 Pillar 5: Scientific LiDAR Survey of Maratha Water Harvesting Systems

IIT Bombay Hydrology Study: Mapping rock-cut cisterns (*Tanks*) at Sinhagad and Rajgad demonstrating sustainable medieval high-altitude water storage.

Complete UPSC Prelims PYQ Archive (1995–2026)

Exhaustive collection of all 8 questions asked in UPSC Civil Services Prelims (1995–2026) on the Marathas & Regional States:

UPSC Prelims 2024

Q. With reference to the medieval history of India, consider the following statements regarding Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj:
1. Raigad Fort was chosen as the capital where his formal coronation took place in 1674 CE.
2. Pandit Gaga Bhatt of Varanasi presided over the coronation ceremony.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

UPSC Prelims 2023

Q. Consider the following pairs of 18th-century regional states and their founders:
1. Hyderabad — Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I
2. Bengal — Murshid Quli Khan
3. Awadh — Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

UPSC Prelims 2021

Q. With reference to the fiscal administration of the Maratha Empire, consider the following statements regarding Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:
1. Chauth was a 25% (one-fourth) levy collected from neighbouring non-Maratha territories as protection against plunder.
2. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy claimed by Shivaji as the hereditary chief headman of Maharashtra.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

UPSC Prelims 2019

Q. The famous Battle of Palkhed (1728 CE), celebrated for its brilliant mobile cavalry encirclement, was fought between:

UPSC Prelims 2015

Q. Who among the following commanded the Europeanized Maratha artillery division at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE)?

UPSC Prelims 2011

Q. Who among the following 18th-century rulers authored the military manual 'Fathul Mujahidin' detailing the deployment of iron-cased rocket artillery?

UPSC Prelims 2005

Q. The council of eight ministers known as the 'Ashtapradhan' assisted in the civil and military administration of which medieval Indian monarch?

UPSC Prelims 1998

Q. The famous Treaty of Purandar was signed in June 1665 CE between Shivaji and which Mughal military general?

Complete UPSC Mains GS-1 Archive (1995–2026)

Exhaustive collection of all 3 questions asked in UPSC Civil Services Mains GS-I (1995–2026) on the Marathas & 18th Century:

UPSC Mains GS-I 2023 15 Marks · 250 Words

Q. "Critically evaluate the administrative and fiscal policies of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. How did the Ashtapradhan council and Chauth-Sardeshmukhi levies strengthen Swarajya?"

🔒 Locked Model Answer — Attempt on Portal to Unlock:

Submit your answer to unlock the blueprint: (1) Ashtapradhan Structure: Functional division of portfolios directly accountable to the Chhatrapati without hereditary tenure; (2) Agrarian Reforms: Elimination of feudal intermediaries (*Deshmukhs*), direct collection via *Karkuns*, and *Kathi* measurement; (3) External Fiscal Policy: *Chauth* (25%) and *Sardeshmukhi* (10%) creating an external revenue buffer to maintain a standing cavalry (*Bargirs*) without burdening the domestic peasantry.

✍️ Open Portal to Write & Unlock Answer →

UPSC Mains GS-I 2019 15 Marks · 250 Words

Q. "The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 did not decide who was to rule India, but rather who was NOT to rule India. Discuss the geopolitical causes and consequences of this battle."

🔒 Locked Model Answer — Attempt on Portal to Unlock:

Attempt this question to unlock the structural analysis: (1) Geopolitical Context: Maratha expansion into Punjab (Attock) colliding with Ahmad Shah Abdali; (2) Causes of Maratha Defeat: Severed logistics, burden of non-combatants, diplomatic isolation from Rajputs/Jats, and Abdali's mobile *Zamburak* swivel-guns; (3) Consequence: Decimation of Maratha imperial ambitions and creation of a political vacuum that enabled British colonial subjugation.

✍️ Open Portal to Write & Unlock Answer →

UPSC Mains GS-I 2014 12.5 Marks · 200 Words

Q. "Examine the nature of the 18th-century regional successor states (Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, Mysore). Were they merely decaying fragments of the Mughal Empire or dynamic polities fostering regional modernization?"

🔒 Locked Model Answer — Attempt on Portal to Unlock:

Unlock model response: (1) Historiographical Revision: Refuting the colonial "Dark Age" myth; (2) Succession Mechanisms: Maintaining symbolic Mughal legitimacy while forging fiscal autonomy; (3) Modernization Milestones: Tipu Sultan's rocket technology and French naval ties, Ranjit Singh's *Fauz-i-Khas*, Awadh's cultural flourishing, and Murshid Quli Khan's agrarian reorganization in Bengal.

✍️ Open Portal to Write & Unlock Answer →

High-Yield Rapid Recall Hub: Marathas & Regional States

💡 Active Recall Mode: Key terms and topics are visible below. Click on any blurred answer to reveal it individually, or click the button above to toggle all answers.

Shivaji Maharaj

Coronation: 6 June 1674 at Raigad by Gaga Bhatt; Chhatrapati title.
Purandar (1665): Signed with Raja Jai Singh; surrendered 23 forts to Mughals.
Afzal Khan: 1659 CE killed Bijapur general at Pratapgarh with Bagh Nakh.
Tactics: Ganimi Kava (guerrilla warfare) in Sahyadri hill fortresses.

Ashtapradhan & Taxes

Ashtapradhan: 8-minister council: Peshwa, Amatya, Waqia-Navis, Sachiv, etc.
Chauth: 25% (1/4th) protection tax on neighbouring non-Maratha lands.
Sardeshmukhi: Additional 10% levy claimed as hereditary Chief Headman.
Cavalry: Bargirs (state horses) & Shiledars (own horses/weapons).

Peshwas & Confederacy

Baji Rao I: Palkhed (1728); Bhopal (1737); Bassein (1739); Shaniwar Wada.
Nana Saheb: Sangola Agreement (1750); Punjab expansion up to Attock.
5 Houses: Peshwa (Pune), Gaekwad (Baroda), Holkar, Scindia, Bhonsle.
Ahilyabai: Holkar queen of Indore; rebuilt Kashi Vishwanath & Somnath.

Third Panipat (1761)

Commanders: Sadashivrao Bhau & Vishwasrao vs Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Artillery: Ibrahim Khan Gardi (Maratha) vs Zamburaks (Afghan swivels).
Outcome: 28,000 Marathas slain; cleared path for British East India Co.
Merchant Code: "Two pearls dissolved, 27 gold mohurs lost..."

Southern States

Hyderabad: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I founded Asaf Jahi dynasty in 1724.
Tipu Sultan: Mysorean rockets; Dindigul arsenal; Fathul Mujahidin; 1799 death.
Colachel (1741): Martanda Varma of Travancore crushed the Dutch fleet.
Awadh: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722); Lucknow Bara Imambara.

Punjab & Assam

Ranjit Singh: Unified 12 Misls in 1799; Fauz-i-Khas; Golden Temple canopy.
Saraighat (1671): Lachit Borphukan (Ahom) routed Mughal naval invasion on Brahmaputra.
Bengal (1717): Murshid Quli Khan (Murshidabad); Battle of Plassey (1757).
Tarabai: Queen regent who led 27-year War of Independence vs Aurangzeb.

Chapter 07: Marathas & Regional States (c. 1674–1761 CE)

Table of Contents

🎬 The Historical Storyline: Swarajya, Guerrilla Warfare, Peshwa Hegemony & The Panipat Tragedy

🧭 Ground Zero Analytical Compass: 3 Core Pillars for UPSC

1. Swarajya Statecraft

2. Peshwas & Panipat

3. Regional Modernization

1. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj & The Ashtapradhan Council

2. The Peshwa Era & The Maratha Confederacy Pentarchy

3. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761 CE)

🚩 Opposing Forces & Leadership

⚠️ Causes of Maratha Defeat

📜 Historical Significance & Aftermath

4. 18th-Century Regional Successor States

Topper's 30-Second Exam Diagrams: Maratha Confederacy & Ashtapradhan Flow

1. The Maratha Confederacy Pentarchy

2. Swarajya Revenue Flow: Chauth & Sardeshmukhi

High-Yield UPSC Maratha & Regional State Terminology

Mains 360° Analytical Framework: Swarajya Statecraft vs. Confederacy Decay

Multi-Dimensional Contemporary Linkages (2020–2026): The 5-Pillar UPSC Matrix

Master Marathas & Regional States on Student Portal

Complete UPSC Prelims PYQ Archive (1995–2026)

Complete UPSC Mains GS-1 Archive (1995–2026)

High-Yield Rapid Recall Hub: Marathas & Regional States