Early Medieval India (c. 750–1200 AD) — Pratihara, Pala, Rashtrakuta, Tripartite Struggle & Regional Dynasties

1. The Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty (c. 730–1036 AD)

The Gurjara Pratiharas were the dominant power of North India between c. 800 and 1000 AD, ruling from Kannauj at their peak. They are credited with successfully resisting the early Arab invasions from Sindh and providing a 200-year shield to the Indo-Gangetic plain.

1.1 Origin & Founder

• Origin: Debated — three views: (i) descended from the Gurjaras, a foreign pastoral people who entered India with the Hunas in the 5th–6th century; (ii) of indigenous Kshatriya (Rajput) origin claiming descent from Lakshmana (the "Pratihara" or door-keeper of Rama in the Ramayana); (iii) of mixed origin assimilated into Kshatriya status. The third view (Romila Thapar) is most accepted.
• Two main branches: the Gurjaras of Bhinmal (Jodhpur) — early line; and the Pratiharas of Avanti–Kannauj — the imperial line.
• Founder of imperial line: Nagabhata I (c. 730–760 AD), ruling from Ujjain. He repulsed the Arab invasion under Junaid, governor of Sindh — a victory commemorated in the Gwalior Prashasti of his descendant Bhoja.

1.2 Major Rulers

1.3 Significance of the Pratiharas

• Bulwark against Arab expansion: The Pratiharas held back the Arab armies that had taken Sindh (711 AD) — preventing them from advancing into the Gangetic plain for nearly 300 years.
• Cultural patronage: Mihir Bhoja's Vaishnavism; Mahendrapala's patronage of Rajashekhara; the Maru-Gurjara style of temple architecture (precursor to Khajuraho and Modhera).
• Decline factors: The Rashtrakuta sack of Kannauj (916), succession disputes, the rise of Chandelas/Paramaras as feudatories, and finally Mahmud of Ghazni's raid (1018).

2. The Pala Dynasty of Bengal (c. 750–1161 AD)

The Palas restored political unity to Bengal after the prolonged anarchy of Matsyanyaya following Shashanka and Harsha. For more than 400 years they ruled Bengal and Bihar, becoming the last great Buddhist royal dynasty of India and the dominant power in the East during the Tripartite Struggle.

2.1 Foundation — Gopala & Matsyanyaya

• After the death of Harshavardhana (647 AD) and Shashanka of Gauda (c. 625 AD), Bengal slid into a century of anarchy called Matsyanyaya ("law of fishes — strong devour the weak") — described in the Khalimpur copper-plate inscription of Dharmapala.
• To end this, the leading men of Gauda elected Gopala (c. 750 AD) as their king — a unique instance of a king elected by his subjects in early medieval India.
• Gopala was a Buddhist — he built the famous Odantapuri (Vikramshila) monastery in Bihar.

2.2 Major Pala Rulers

2.3 Pala Achievements

• Last great Buddhist patrons: Palas were devout Mahayana (and later Vajrayana) Buddhists. They built and supported the four Mahaviharas — Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somapura (Paharpur), Odantapuri — making Bengal–Bihar the centre of Buddhism in the early medieval world.
• Pala School of Art: Distinctive style of bronze and stone sculpture — sleek, elongated, blackish bluestone Buddhas; gilded bronze Tara and Avalokiteshvara. Influenced Tibetan, Burmese, Sri Lankan and SE Asian art.
• International contacts: Balaputradeva of Sumatra (Shailendra) endowed a monastery at Nalanda under Devapala. Pala–Tibet, Pala–Burma, Pala–Sri Vijaya contacts disseminated Tantric Buddhism (Atisha Dipankara went to Tibet from Vikramshila c. 1042).
• Literature: Sanskrit poet Sandhyakaranandi (Ramacharita); Buddhist scholars Haribhadra, Atisha, Naropa, Tilopa.

3. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty (c. 753–982 AD)

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Malkhed in modern Karnataka) were the most powerful Deccan dynasty of the early medieval period. Their territorial range — from Kanyakumari to the Vindhyas — and their extraordinary patronage of art (the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora) made them the bridge between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.

3.1 Political History of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• Origin: Disputed — possibly Kannada-origin agriculturists who served as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami. The name "Rashtrakuta" means "chief of a rashtra (district)".
• Founder: Dantidurga (c. 735–756 AD) — overthrew the last Chalukya of Badami, Kirtivarman II, around 753 AD; performed the Hiranyagarbha mahadana at Ujjain — symbolising imperial status.
• Krishna I (c. 756–774 AD) — Dantidurga's uncle and successor; completed the conquest of the Chalukya territory; commissioned the magnificent Kailasanatha (Kailasa) Temple at Ellora — Cave 16, the largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world.
• Dhruva Dharavarsha (c. 780–793 AD) — the first Rashtrakuta to intervene in northern politics; crossed the Vindhyas and defeated both Vatsaraja Pratihara and Dharmapala Pala in the same campaign — opening the Tripartite Struggle decisively.
• Govinda III (c. 793–814 AD) — son of Dhruva; the greatest military commander of the dynasty; campaigned across India, defeating Nagabhata II Pratihara and Dharmapala Pala, briefly held Kannauj; extended Rashtrakuta power up to the Himalayas in the north and Kanyakumari in the south. Title Jagattunga, Tribhuvanadhavala.
• Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878 AD) — son of Govinda III; ruled for ~64 years from his new capital Manyakheta (Malkhed) — making him one of the longest-reigning monarchs in Indian history. A devout Jain who was the patron and pupil of Jinasena. Authored Kavirajamarga — earliest extant work on poetics in Kannada — and the Sanskrit Prashnottararatnamalika. Patron of Mahaviracharya the Jain mathematician. Arab traveller Sulaiman ranked him among the "four great kings of the world" along with the Caliph of Baghdad, the Emperor of China and the Roman (Byzantine) Emperor.
• Krishna II (c. 878–914 AD) — fought the Pratiharas, Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas.
• Indra III (c. 914–929 AD) — sacked Kannauj in 916 AD and ejected Mahipala I Pratihara — the most decisive blow to the Pratiharas. Visited by Arab traveller Al-Masudi who described his capital's magnificence.
• Krishna III (c. 939–967 AD) — last great Rashtrakuta; defeated the Chola king Parantaka I at the Battle of Takkolam (949 AD), killing the Chola crown prince Rajaditya; raised a pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.
• Karka II (last ruler) — overthrown by his feudatory Tailapa II of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani in 974 AD, ending the dynasty.

3.2 Administration & Military during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• Hereditary monarchy — king assisted by a council of ministers. Crown prince title — Yuvaraja.
• Territorial divisions (top to bottom):
  1. Rashtra (province) under a Rashtrapati.
  2. Vishaya (district) under a Vishayapati.
  3. Bhukti (sub-district / group of villages) under a Bhogapati.
  4. Gram (village) under a Gramapati with the help of village headman (Gavunda) and accountant.
• Feudal structure: Powerful feudatories called Samantas and Mahasamantas were granted lands in lieu of military service — the classic early medieval feudal pattern.
• Military: A strong standing army of infantry, cavalry, elephants and a small navy. The Rashtrakuta cavalry was particularly feared — Sulaiman described it as among the most powerful in India.
• Officials: Mahapradhana (PM), Senapati (army chief), Rajaguru (royal preceptor), Mahasandhivigrahika (foreign affairs).

3.3 Economy during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• Agriculture was the mainstay — land revenue was the principal source of state income, paid in cash and in kind, normally 1/6th of the produce (called Bhaga). Various other levies — Bhoga, Kara, Upakara, Mannadere (house tax), Sulka (commercial tax).
• Trade and commerce flourished — both inland and maritime. Major ports were Sopara, Thane, Saimur (Chemul), Cambay. Active commerce with the Arabs — the Arabs in fact established their first Indian Muslim settlements on the western coast under Rashtrakuta tolerance.
• Currency — gold coins (Suvarna, Gadyanaka), silver coins (Drammas), and copper coins were issued.
• Guilds (Srenis) of merchants, weavers, oil-pressers and goldsmiths were powerful corporate bodies; some doubled as bankers.

3.4 Social Life during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• Varna system was firmly entrenched; Brahmanas were highly privileged with tax-free Agraharas and judicial immunity.
• Position of women declined: girl-marriage was common, sati existed but was not yet widespread in the south; some women rulers (e.g., Akkadevi) held power as feudatories.
• Caste mobility was limited but possible — many merchant and military castes rose by service.
• Joint family system, vegetarianism among upper castes (especially Jain courts), elaborate hospitality codes.
• Foreign communities — Arabs, Persians, Jews and Syrian Christians — coexisted on the west coast.

3.5 Religion & Language during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• Religious tolerance was a hallmark. Though the Rashtrakuta kings were mostly Hindus (Shaiva or Vaishnava), they were also great patrons of Jainism — especially Amoghavarsha I, who studied under Jinasena (author of Adipurana) and his disciple Gunabhadra (Uttarapurana).
• Famous Jain mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote Ganitasarasangraha at Amoghavarsha's court — the first Indian textbook devoted exclusively to mathematics.
• Buddhism survived in pockets, especially at Kanheri caves. Islam took its earliest peaceful root on the west coast under Rashtrakuta protection.
• Languages: Sanskrit was the court language; Kannada rose to literary status with Amoghavarsha's Kavirajamarga and the Jain Kannada poets of the "Three Gems" period (Pampa, Ponna, Ranna — though Pampa flourished under the Chalukyas of Vemulavada).

3.6 Art & Architecture during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Rashtrakuta art is best remembered for the cluster of rock-cut temples at Ellora and Elephanta in modern Maharashtra.

(a) Kailasanatha Temple, Ellora — Cave 16

• Commissioned by Krishna I around 756–774 AD; carved top-down from a single basalt rock outcrop in the Charanandri hills.
• Dimensions: ~50 m long × 33 m wide × 30 m high; 2 lakh tons of rock excavated.
• Modeled on the Pallava Kailasanatha at Kanchi and the Chalukya Virupaksha at Pattadakal — a synthesis of Dravida features with Deccan idiom.
• Sculptural highlights: Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa (Shiva and Parvati above), Lakshmi with elephants, the elephant frieze around the base, the two free-standing dhwajastambhas, the Nandi mandapa, and the gopurams.
• The largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world; UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983).

(b) Elephanta Caves (Gharapuri Island, Mumbai harbour)

• A group of 7 rock-cut caves on Elephanta Island — attributed to the Rashtrakutas (some scholars date earlier to the Konkan Mauryas or the Kalachuris).
• Main cave (Cave 1) dedicated to Shiva — contains the famous Trimurti Sadashiva — a 5.5 m three-headed bust showing Aghora (terrible), Tatpurusha (preserver) and Vamadeva (creator); among the masterpieces of Indian sculpture.
• Other panels — Ardhanarishvara, Nataraja, Gangadhara, Andhakasuravadha, Kalyanasundara (Shiva–Parvati marriage), Ravananugraha.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987).

(c) Other Rashtrakuta monuments

• Ellora Caves 14–29 — Hindu caves; Caves 30–34 — Jain caves (Indra Sabha, Jagannath Sabha) added under Amoghavarsha I.
• Pattadakal Jain Narayana temple — late Rashtrakuta period addition.
• The Rashtrakuta sculptural style — robust, dramatic, deeply carved — fed into both later Deccan and South Indian temple art.

4. The Tripartite Struggle (c. 790–910 AD)

The Tripartite Struggle for control of Kannauj — the political prize of north India after Harshavardhana — was the defining conflict of the early medieval age. It involved three powers: the Gurjara Pratiharas (Avanti–Kannauj), the Palas (Bengal–Bihar), and the Rashtrakutas (Deccan). Kannauj's strategic location at the head of the Doab made it the key to dominance over the Indo-Gangetic plain.

4.1 Why Kannauj?

• Capital of Harshavardhana → became the symbol of "Lord of Aryavarta" (paramountcy over the North).
• Strategically located at the head of the Ganga–Yamuna Doab — controlling it meant controlling trade routes, agricultural surplus, and military mobility.
• Cultural prestige — the city was a centre of Brahmanical learning and royal patronage.

4.2 Course of the Struggle

4.3 Consequences of the Tripartite Struggle

• Mutual exhaustion of the three great powers — none could establish lasting paramountcy.
• Rise of smaller dynasties as the imperial Pratiharas weakened — Chandelas (Bundelkhand), Paramaras (Malwa), Chauhans (Sapadalaksha), Tomaras (Delhi), Gahadavalas (Kannauj after 1085), Senas (Bengal).
• Vulnerability to Turkish invasions — political fragmentation made northern India unable to resist Mahmud of Ghazni's raids (1000–1027 AD) and later Muhammad of Ghor (after 1175 AD).
• Cultural cross-fertilisation — paradoxically, the wars brought Northern, Eastern and Deccan elite into contact: temple styles, languages, marriage alliances spread.

5. Other Dynasties of Early Medieval India

Alongside the three great powers of the Tripartite Struggle, a constellation of regional dynasties shaped early medieval India — the Senas of Bengal who replaced the Palas, the Chedis of Tripuri in central India, the Western and Eastern Gangas of Karnataka and Orissa, and the two great Chalukya offshoots at Vengi and Kalyani.

5.1 The Sena Dynasty of Bengal (c. 1097–1225 AD)

• Origin: Brahma-Kshatriya origin from Karnataka — descendants of the Senas who entered Bengal as military officers under the later Palas.
• Founder: Samantasena (late 11th c.) — feudatory of the Palas.
• Hemantasena & Vijayasena (c. 1097–1158) — Vijayasena overthrew the last Pala kings (Madanapala) and founded the imperial Sena line; capital at Vijayapura and later Lakhnauti (Gaur). The Deopara Prashasti records his exploits.
• Vallalasena (c. 1158–1179) — codified the rigid caste hierarchy of Bengal known as Kulinism; promoted Brahmanical orthodoxy; authored Danasagara and Adbhutasagara.
• Lakshmana Sena (c. 1179–1206) — the last great Sena; greatly patronised Sanskrit literature — his court hosted Jayadeva (author of Gita Govinda), Dhoyi (Pavanaduta), Sharanadeva and Halayudha (Brahmana-sarvasva). Defeated and dethroned in 1204–05 by the Turkish raider Bakhtiyar Khalji who, with a small cavalry force, took Nadia by surprise — marking the end of Hindu rule in Bengal.
• Significance: The Senas revived Brahmanism and Sanskrit learning in Bengal, displacing the long Buddhist patronage of the Palas — preparing the ground for Bengali culture's Brahmanical orientation.

5.2 The Chedi Dynasty of Tripuri (Kalachuris of Tripuri, c. 845–1212 AD)

• Ruled Dahala-mandala in central India (modern Madhya Pradesh) from their capital Tripuri (modern Tewar near Jabalpur).
• Also called the Kalachuris of Tripuri to distinguish them from the Kalachuris of Kalyani.
• Kokalla I (c. 845 AD) — founder; matrimonial alliances with the Rashtrakutas and Chandelas.
• Gangeyadeva (c. 1015–1041) — assumed the title Vikramaditya; introduced gold coinage; defeated the Palas and reached Kashi (Varanasi). His Sodasa Mahadana at Prayag established his imperial pretensions.
• Karna (Lakshmikarna) (c. 1041–1073) — greatest Chedi; defeated Bhoja of Dhara and pushed Chedi influence to the doorstep of Bengal. Patron of the great Sanskrit poet Bilhana (who later wrote Vikramankadevacharita at Kalyani).
• Decline: weakened by the rising Chandelas, Paramaras and Gahadavalas; finally absorbed by the Delhi Sultanate.

5.3 The Western Ganga Dynasty (c. 350–1000 AD)

• Ruled Gangavadi — southern Karnataka (modern Mysore region) — from capital Talakad (and earlier Kuvalala/Kolar).
• Founder: Konganivarman Madhava (c. 350 AD).
• Long political subordination — feudatories of the Pallavas, Chalukyas of Badami and finally the Rashtrakutas.
• Strong patrons of Jainism. Minister Chamundaraya of King Rachamalla IV commissioned the monolithic Bahubali (Gommateshvara) statue at Shravanabelagola in 982 AD — at 57 ft, India's tallest monolith; the Mahamastakabhisheka anointing is held once every 12 years.
• Literary patronage: Pampa ("Adikavi" of Kannada) and Ponna flourished in the Ganga region.
• Overthrown by the Cholas under Rajaraja I around 1000 AD.

5.4 The Ganga (Chodaganga) Dynasty of Orissa (c. 1078–1434 AD)

• Also called the Eastern Gangas — not to be confused with the Western Gangas of Karnataka.
• Ruled Trikalinga (modern Odisha, parts of Andhra and Bengal) from capitals at Kalinganagara and later Cuttack.
• Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva (c. 1078–1147) — founder of the imperial line; consolidated Orissa from the Ganga in the north to the Godavari in the south. He started the construction of the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
• Narasimhadeva I (c. 1238–1264) — built the legendary Konark Sun Temple (Black Pagoda) — UNESCO World Heritage Site (1984) — designed as a colossal stone chariot with 24 carved wheels and 7 horses pulling the chariot of Surya. Also a great military king who repulsed the Turko-Afghan raids of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Eastern Gangas thus produced two of Odisha's three great Hindu temples: Jagannath Puri and Konark (the third — Lingaraja at Bhubaneswar — being earlier, under the Somavamshis).
• Replaced by the Suryavamshi Gajapatis after 1434 AD.

6. The Chalukya Dynasties — Vengi & Kalyani

The Chalukya house — first installed by Pulakeshin II of Badami in the 7th century — survived the Rashtrakuta interregnum through two collateral branches: the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi in Andhra and the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani in Karnataka.

6.1 Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (c. 624–1130 AD)

• Founder: Kubja Vishnuvardhana — brother of Pulakeshin II of Badami who installed him as viceroy of Vengi (between the Krishna and the Godavari rivers in Andhra) c. 624 AD; he soon became independent.
• Capital: initially Pishtapura, later Vengi, then Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry).
• Long political tightrope between the Rashtrakutas, Cholas and Western Chalukyas of Kalyani — frequent matrimonial and military alliances with the Cholas.
• Vimaladitya (c. 1011–1018) — married a Chola princess Kundavai (sister of Rajaraja I) — beginning a long Chalukya–Chola family alliance.
• Rajaraja Narendra (c. 1019–1061) — patron of the Telugu poet Nannaya, who began translating the Mahabharata into Telugu (Andhra Mahabharatam) — Nannaya is hailed as the "Adikavi" of Telugu literature.
• Kulottunga I (c. 1070–1122) — actually a Chalukya prince of Vengi who, through his Chola maternal line, ascended the Chola throne at Tanjavur as Kulottunga I — merging the two dynasties (the Chalukya-Chola line).
• After Kulottunga's accession to the Chola throne, the Vengi line continued under junior princes until merging fully with the Cholas.

6.2 Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (c. 973–1189 AD)

• Also called the Later Chalukyas; revived the Chalukya house in the Deccan after the Rashtrakutas were overthrown.
• Founder: Tailapa II (c. 973–997 AD) — a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas who overthrew the last Rashtrakuta king Karka II and established his capital at Manyakheta, later shifted to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan).
• Satyashraya (c. 997–1008) — repulsed the Chola invasion of Rajaraja I.
• Someshvara I (Ahavamalla) (c. 1042–1068) — founded the city of Kalyani as the new capital; fought a long, draining war with the Cholas — defeated and killed Chola king Rajadhiraja at the Battle of Koppam (1052). Committed jala-samadhi in the Tungabhadra when terminally ill.
• Vikramaditya VI (c. 1076–1126) — greatest king; ruled for 50 years. Established the Chalukya–Vikrama Era in 1076 AD (in lieu of the Saka era — though Saka continued to dominate). His court poet Bilhana (a Kashmiri) wrote the famous Sanskrit biographical poem Vikramankadevacharita. The legal scholar Vijnaneshvara wrote Mitakshara — a commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti — which became the most authoritative Hindu legal text in most of India (excluding Bengal where the Dayabhaga of Jimutavahana prevailed).
• Someshvara III — authored the Manasollasa (also called Abhilashitarthachintamani) — an encyclopaedic Sanskrit work on royal life, arts, dietetics, music, and even early references to chess and food preparation.
• Architecture: Vesara style — fusion of Nagara and Dravida — best seen at Lakkundi, Gadag, Dambal, Itagi (Mahadeva temple — "emperor of temples").
• Religion: Veera Shaivism founded by Basavanna (philosopher-minister of King Bijjala) emerged in this period — leading to the Lingayat reform movement.
• Decline: Around 1189 AD, the Chalukyas of Kalyani were overthrown by their feudatories — the Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, and Kakatiyas of Warangal — who carved out independent kingdoms.

7. Dynasties of Kashmir (c. 625–1338 AD)

The history of early medieval Kashmir is uniquely well-documented thanks to Kalhana's Rajatarangini (c. 1148–49 AD) — the earliest historical chronicle of Kashmir in Sanskrit, often described as India's first true historical work. It covers four major successive dynasties.

7.1 Karkota Dynasty (c. 625–855 AD)

• Founder: Durlabhavardhana (c. 625 AD) — son-in-law of the last Gonanda king Baladitya.
• Lalitaditya Muktapida (c. 724–760 AD) — greatest Karkota king; described by Kalhana as a Digvijayi conqueror who marched across north India defeating Yashovarman of Kannauj (the patron of Bhavabhuti and Vakpati), the Turks of Tukharistan, and reached central Asia.
  • Built the magnificent Martand Sun Temple near Anantnag (Kashmir, c. 8th c. AD) — fused Gandharan, Gupta and indigenous Kashmiri styles; now in ruins but architecturally seminal.
  • Founded the city of Parihasapura.
  • His vast empire collapsed after his death.
• Jayapida (c. 770–807) — grandson of Lalitaditya; renewed conquests but his administration was oppressive; harsh tax policies described in Rajatarangini.
• After Jayapida, the Karkotas declined; usurped by Avantivarman of the Utpala dynasty.

7.2 Utpala Dynasty (c. 855–1003 AD)

• Founder: Avantivarman (c. 855–883 AD) — usurped the Karkota throne. Founded the city of Avantipur with its famous Avantishvara (Shiva) and Avantisvami (Vishnu) temples.
• His minister-engineer Suyya regulated the course of the Vitasta (Jhelum) river — a pioneering hydraulic engineering feat that drained marshes and brought back agricultural prosperity. The town of Suyyapura was named after him.
• Shankaravarman (c. 883–902 AD) — son of Avantivarman; expanded into Punjab and reached the Hindushahi frontier but was killed in battle. His widow Queen Sugandha ruled as regent.
• The dynasty declined into a series of weak rulers, palace intrigues and rule of Tantrins (mercenary foot-soldiers).
• Queen Didda (c. 980–1003 AD) — granddaughter of Bhima Shahi (Hindushahi); first as regent, then as sovereign queen — strong ruler who held Kashmir for two decades; named her Khasa nephew Sangrama Raja as successor → founding the First Lohara dynasty.

7.3 Yashaskara Dynasty (c. 939–1003 AD — sometimes treated as a minor interregnum within the Utpalas)

• Founder: Yashaskara (c. 939–948 AD) — a Brahmana chosen as king by an assembly of priests (a unique constitutional moment in Kashmir).
• His reign was marked by good administration and patronage of learning.
• The dynasty was short-lived (3 weak successors) and the throne returned to the Utpala line / chaos.

7.4 Hindushahi Dynasty (c. 822–1026 AD)

• Strictly speaking, the Hindushahis ruled the Kabul valley and the Punjab (Gandhara region) — not Kashmir proper — but they are conventionally grouped under "Kashmir dynasties" because of their geographic and political contact with it.
• Succeeded the earlier Turkshahi dynasty around 822 AD when their last Turkshahi king Lagaturman was deposed by his Brahmana minister Kallar, who founded the Hindushahi line.
• Capital initially at Kabul, later shifted east to Udabhandapura (Hund) on the Indus after Arab pressure.
• Major rulers:
  • Bhima Shahi — early Hindushahi king; grandfather of Queen Didda of Kashmir (matrimonial link).
  • Jayapala (c. 964–1001) — opposed the rising Ghaznavid power; defeated by Sabuktigin at Lamghan (Laghman) in 989. Later defeated by Sabuktigin's son Mahmud of Ghazni at the Battle of Peshawar (1001 AD); captured and ransomed; later immolated himself in despair.
  • Anandapala (1001–1010) — son of Jayapala; gathered a confederacy of Indian kings (Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi, Ajmer) but was decisively defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni at the Battle of Chach (Waihind / Hund, 1008 AD) — the battle that opened the Punjab to the Ghaznavids.
  • Trilochanapala (1010–1021) — fought heroically but was killed; Hindushahi power collapsed.
  • Bhimapala ("Nidar Bhim") — last Hindushahi; killed in 1026.
• Historical significance: The Hindushahis were the first Indian dynasty to confront the Turkish onslaught; their century-long resistance (Sabuktigin–Jayapala–Anandapala–Trilochanapala–Bhimapala) bore the brunt of the Ghaznavid expansion and bought time for the rest of India. Al-Biruni, who came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni, paid them a memorable tribute in his Kitab-ul-Hind: "In all their grandeur, they never slackened in their ardent desire of doing that which is good and right ... what a noble sentiment in barbarous times!"

8. Society of Early Medieval India

8.1 Condition of People in Early Medieval India

• The bulk of the population remained agricultural — peasants (krishakas, halikas) cultivating lands often under tenancy.
• Rise of an intermediary class — Brahmana donees (brahmadeya), temple authorities (devadana) and military feudatories (samantas, mahasamantas) — extracted dues from the peasants on behalf of (or in lieu of) the state.
• Peasant condition deteriorated in many regions — multiple cesses (kara, bhoga, sulka, mannadere, halibhata), corvée labour (vishti), restrictions on movement.
• Tribal absorption continued — many tribal communities were integrated into the lower rungs of caste society.

8.2 Nature of Society in Early Medieval India

(a) Caste System

• Rigidification of the 4-fold varna order; proliferation of jatis (sub-castes) — by the time of Al-Biruni (c. 1030 AD), he counted dozens of named jatis in India.
• Mixed-caste origins (anuloma and pratiloma) were systematised in the Smritis.
• Kshatriya status was claimed by many new ruling groups — Pratiharas, Chandelas, Paramaras, Chauhans, Senas — who originated as Gurjaras, Bhilas, agriculturists or feudatories; many were ritually re-consecrated as Rajputs through the Agnikula myth of Mount Abu.
• Vallalasena of Bengal codified Kulinism — a tier of "noble" Brahmana lineages within the Brahmana caste itself — which froze marriage circles in Bengal for centuries.

(b) Untouchability

• Untouchability became fully institutionalised. The Chandalas, Doms, Madigas, Paraiyars were not allowed to enter villages, draw water from common wells, or even walk on main paths — they had to announce their approach.
• Al-Biruni described eight categories of untouchables in India.
• This rigid stratification later facilitated mass conversions to Islam (and from the 15th c., to Bhakti and Sufi inclusive sects).

8.3 Condition of Women in Early Medieval India

• Position deteriorated sharply in upper-caste society. Pre-puberty marriage became normative; sati spread across Rajasthan, Kashmir and the Deccan.
• Widow remarriage and divorce — disallowed in upper varnas; remained acceptable in lower castes and tribal groups.
• Property rights restricted to stridhana; the Mitakshara codified women's limited inheritance rights.
• Exceptional women: Queen Didda of Kashmir (sole sovereign queen, c. 980–1003), Queen Sugandha, the Western Ganga princess Attimabbe (Jain patron), and several Rashtrakuta and Chalukya princesses ruled as feudatory governors.
• Devadasi system — institutionalised in temple economies; girls "married" to the deity served as temple dancers, musicians and ritualists; many came from elite families.

8.4 Ways of Dressing, Food and Amusement during Early Medieval India

• Dress: Men — dhoti, upper cloth, turban; women — sari or antariya with breast-cloth (kanchuka); cotton was the common fabric, silk reserved for the wealthy. Jewellery was elaborate — gold, silver, gemstones — in both sexes.
• Food: Rice, wheat, barley, millets; pulses; ghee and milk products; meat (mostly mutton, fowl, fish — beef now strictly avoided in Brahmanical society); vegetarianism was the rising norm among upper castes, especially under Jain and Vaishnava influence.
• Amusements: Dance (nritya), music (vocal and instrumental — vina, mridanga, flute), chess (chaturanga), dice, polo, hunting (royal pastime), wrestling, swimming, festivals. The Manasollasa of Someshvara III describes royal pastimes in detail.
• Festivals: Holi, Diwali, Shivaratri, Navaratri, Sankranti, Onam, Pongal — many regional festivals took their modern shape in this period.

8.5 Condition of Education in Early Medieval India

• Brahmanical education centred on the gurukula system and at temple colleges (ghatika / matha).
• Buddhist learning flourished at the four Pala Mahaviharas — Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somapura (Paharpur), Odantapuri. Atisha Dipankara Srijnana, abbot of Vikramshila, went to Tibet c. 1042 AD at the invitation of the king of Tibet — a pivotal moment in Indo-Tibetan religious history.
• Jain education at Shravanabelagola (Western Ganga) and at Manyakheta (Rashtrakuta).
• Specialised centres: Kashi (Sanskrit), Mithila (Nyaya), Kanchi (Ghatika of the South), Vallabhi (mixed), Sharada Peeth (Kashmir — for grammar and Shaiva philosophy).
• Sharada Peeth in Kashmir gave its name to the Sharada script from which the modern Gurmukhi and Devanagari descend.

8.6 Developments in the Field of Science during Early Medieval India

• Mathematics & astronomy:
  • Brahmagupta (c. 598–668 AD, just before this period) — his Brahmasphutasiddhanta was translated into Arabic in the 8th century at Baghdad — the route by which Indian decimal numerals reached Europe.
  • Mahaviracharya (9th c., Amoghavarsha's court) — Ganitasarasangraha, the first Sanskrit textbook devoted exclusively to mathematics.
  • Bhaskara II (Bhaskaracharya) (c. 1114–1185, Western Chalukya region) — Siddhantashiromani (4 parts — Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita, Goladhyaya); anticipated calculus by his concept of Tatkalika gati (instantaneous motion).
• Medicine: Continued development of the Charaka–Susruta tradition. Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya (c. 7th c.) was widely studied. Madhavakara's Rugviniscaya (c. 9th c.) — a systematic diagnostic compendium.
• Metallurgy: Continued excellence in the iron and steel industry — the Mehrauli iron pillar (Gupta) tradition continued; the bronze sculpture of the Palas, Cholas and Rashtrakutas reached technical peaks.
• Hydraulic engineering: Suyya in Kashmir; the immense step-wells (vavs / baolis) of Gujarat and Rajasthan; the irrigation tanks of Vidarbha and Karnataka.
• Architecture as science: The Vastushastra tradition matured — Mayamatam, Manasara, Samaranganasutradhara of Bhoja Paramara (11th c.) — detailed treatises on temple-building, town-planning and even early references to mechanical contrivances.

8.7 Religious Learning during Early Medieval India

(a) Revival of Hinduism

• The most defining religious movement of the period was the revival of Brahmanical Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism — driven by three forces:
  1. Adi Shankaracharya (c. 788–820 AD) of Kaladi (Kerala) — synthesised the Upanishadic doctrine into Advaita Vedanta ("non-dualism"). Travelled across India, founded the four mathas at Sringeri (south), Dwarka (west), Puri (east) and Jyotirmath (north) — institutionalising Hinduism. His commentaries (bhashyas) on the Brahma Sutras, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita are foundational.
  2. The Bhakti movement — the Alvars (Vaishnava) and Nayanars (Shaiva) of the Tamil country composed devotional hymns in Tamil. Twelve Alvars (incl. Andal, Nammalvar) and 63 Nayanars (incl. Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavachakar). Their hymns were canonised as the Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Vaishnava) and the Tirumurai (Shaiva).
  3. Puranic Hinduism — the 18 Mahapuranas reached their final form, popularising Shiva, Vishnu and Devi cults across India through mythology, pilgrimage and temple ritual.
• Tantra rose to prominence — both within Hinduism (Kashmir Shaivism — Vasugupta's Shiva Sutras, Abhinavagupta's Tantraloka) and Buddhism (Vajrayana under the Palas).
• Buddhism survived mainly in Bihar–Bengal (Pala patronage), Kashmir, Sri Lanka, Tibet, Burma. It declined elsewhere due to (i) Brahmanical revival, (ii) loss of merchant patronage, (iii) absorption of Buddhist deities into Hinduism (Buddha as the 9th avatar of Vishnu), and (iv) Turkish destruction of monasteries after 1200 AD (Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila).
• Jainism flourished in Karnataka (Rashtrakutas, Gangas), Gujarat (Solankis) and Rajasthan.
• Islam arrived peacefully on the west coast through Arab traders — the earliest Indian mosques are at Kerala (Cheraman Juma Masjid, traditional date 629 AD) and on the Konkan/Gujarat coast under Rashtrakuta tolerance.

9. Economic Life during Early Medieval India

9.1 The Feudal Economy — RS Sharma's Thesis

• RS Sharma argued that early medieval India experienced "Indian feudalism" — characterised by:
  1. Proliferation of land grants (brahmadeya, agrahara, devadana, secular grants to officials).
  2. Rise of an intermediary class of samantas and mahasamantas between the king and the cultivator.
  3. Decline of long-distance trade and urban centres.
  4. Restriction of peasants' mobility — they became virtual serfs (halikas) on the land.
  5. Coinage decline — copper and base-metal coins increasingly replaced gold.
• Counter-thesis (Harbans Mukhia, BD Chattopadhyaya): The land grants were not "feudal" in the European sense — there was no vassal–lord contract, peasants were not legal serfs, and trade did not fully collapse — especially in the Deccan and South which saw vigorous Indo-Arab commerce.

9.2 Trade and Commerce during Early Medieval India

• Inland trade continued through major routes — the Uttarapatha (north) and Dakshinapatha (south) — connecting all major capitals. Trade-fairs at Hardwar, Prayag, Pushkar, Sonepur (the Sonpur cattle fair of Bihar), Pattadakal flourished.
• Maritime trade on the west coast revived strongly under the Rashtrakutas and later the Solankis of Gujarat — with the Arabs, Persians and East Africans. Ports: Sopara, Thane, Saimur (Chemul), Cambay, Bharuch, Quilon.
• East coast maritime trade was dominated by the Cholas (south of our scope here) with SE Asia (Sri Vijaya) and China.
• Merchant guilds (Srenis) were powerful corporate bodies — the Nakaras (Karnataka), Manigramam and Ainnurruvar (Five Hundred) of Ayyavole (Aihole) had members spread across the Deccan, Tamil country and even Southeast Asia. They acted as bankers, organised caravans, and built temples.
• Imports: horses (from Arabia, Central Asia — vital for cavalry), gold, silver, silks, glassware, slaves.
• Exports: cotton textiles, spices (especially pepper from Malabar), indigo, sugar, precious stones, sandalwood, ivory.
• Coinage: Gold coinage declined in north India compared to the Gupta age, but the Rashtrakutas, Palas, Chalukyas and Cholas continued issuing gold and silver coins. The Pratiharas issued the famous "Adivaraha" drammas (Mihir Bhoja's silver coins).
• Urban centres: while many ancient cities (Pataliputra, Vaishali) had decayed, new ones flourished — Kannauj, Manyakheta, Tanjavur, Vengi, Rajamahendri, Lakhnauti, Cuttack, Anhilwad-Patan, Multan — driven by political capitals and pilgrimage trade.

10. Current Affairs Link

• Ellora Cave 16 (Kailasanatha) — continues to feature in news for conservation; ASI restoration ongoing; impact of monsoon water seepage being studied.
• Konark Sun Temple — Phase III conservation work by ASI and INTACH; sand-filling controversy of the Jagamohana under review.
• Sharada Peeth in PoK — appeals for opening the Sharada Peeth corridor in PoK have been made periodically; a key religious-diplomatic issue.
• Martand Sun Temple — ASI is conducting structural survey; Kashmir's archaeological heritage is once again in the spotlight after the 2019 reorganisation.
• Shravanabelagola Mahamastakabhisheka — last held in 2018; once-in-12-years ceremony anointing the Bahubali monolith built by Chamundaraya under the Western Gangas.
• Bakhtiyar Khalji's conquest of Bengal (1204) and his attack on Nalanda — periodically discussed in academic/historiographical debates on the "decline of Buddhism in India".
• Jagannath Temple Puri — Rath Yatra; conservation of the 12th-century Eastern Ganga structure.

11. Previous Year Questions (UPSC)