Panchayati Raj & Municipalities
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of 1992 created a third tier of government in India — Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) for rural areas and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) for urban areas. These landmark amendments constitutionalised local self-governance, mandated reservations for SC/ST and women, and established independent State Election Commissions and State Finance Commissions. A high-frequency topic for both Prelims and Mains GS-II.
On this page
- Conceptual Clarity
- Historical Background
- 73rd Amendment — Arts 243–243O
- Three-Tier PRI Structure
- Gram Sabha
- 11th Schedule — 29 Subjects
- State EC & State FC
- 74th Amendment — Arts 243P–243ZG
- Types of Urban Bodies
- 12th Schedule — 18 Subjects
- DPC & MPC
- 73rd vs 74th — Comparison
- Issues with PRIs & ULBs
- Current Affairs
- Prelims PYQs
- Mains PYQs
- Revision Box
Conceptual Clarity — Third Tier of Government
India's governance structure has three tiers: Union, State, and Local (PRIs/ULBs). While the first two were constitutional from 1950, local bodies existed only in state statutes until 1992. The 73rd and 74th Amendments gave constitutional status to these institutions — but they are enabling legislation, not mandatory devolution. States retain full power to decide how much functions, funds, and functionaries (3Fs) to actually devolve.
- 73rd Amendment: Panchayati Raj Institutions (rural) — Art. 243 to 243O — Part IX of Constitution
- 74th Amendment: Urban Local Bodies (urban) — Art. 243P to 243ZG — Part IX-A of Constitution
- Key insight: The Constitution provides the framework; actual devolution depends on state legislation.
1. Historical Background — Road to 73rd Amendment
1.1 Key Committees
| Committee / Year | Key Recommendation | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Balwantray Mehta Committee, 1957 | Recommended 3-tier Panchayati Raj structure: village, block, district level; democratic decentralisation | Rajasthan first to implement (Oct 2, 1959); most states adopted 3-tier by 1960s |
| Ashok Mehta Committee, 1978 | Recommended 2-tier structure — Mandal Panchayat (group of villages) + Zila Parishad (district level); political parties should be allowed to participate | Report not implemented; government changed before action |
| G.V.K. Rao Committee, 1985 | PRIs had become "grass without roots" — recommended strengthening with regular elections, finance devolution, district as basic unit of planning | Partial reforms; still no constitutional status |
| L.M. Singhvi Committee, 1986 | Recommended constitutional status for PRIs; Gram Sabha should be constitutionally recognised; Nyaya Panchayats for dispute resolution | Led directly to constitutional amendment efforts |
| 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill, 1989 | Rajiv Gandhi government introduced Nagar Palika Bill + PRI Bill; Nagar Palika Bill passed LS but rejected by RS | Failed; government fell before re-introduction |
| 73rd Amendment, 1992 | P.V. Narasimha Rao government; passed by Parliament Dec 1992; effective April 24, 1993 | Added Part IX (Arts 243–243O) and 11th Schedule to Constitution |
1.2 Why 73rd Amendment was Needed
- PRIs were dependent on state governments — states held elections irregularly or not at all
- No mandatory reservation for women or weaker sections
- No independent election authority — state governments controlled election timing
- No constitutional guarantee of funds or functions to PRIs
- Parallel bodies (block development offices, district rural development agencies) bypassed PRIs
2. 73rd Amendment — Constitutional Provisions (Arts 243–243O)
2.1 Article-by-Article Overview
| Article | Provision | Key Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Art. 243 | Definitions | Village, intermediate level, district level, Gram Sabha, panchayat, population defined |
| Art. 243A | Gram Sabha | Body of all registered voters in a village; may exercise powers/functions as state legislature may provide |
| Art. 243B | Three-tier structure | Panchayats at village, intermediate, and district levels; intermediate level not needed if state population < 20 lakh |
| Art. 243C | Composition of Panchayats | Direct election from territorial constituencies; representation may be given to MPs, MLAs, members of intermediate/district panchayats |
| Art. 243D | Reservation of seats | SC/ST — proportional to their population; women — not less than 1/3 (can be increased by states); OBC reservation optional for states |
| Art. 243E | Duration of Panchayats | 5-year term; if dissolved, fresh elections within 6 months; reconstituted panchayat serves only remainder of 5-year period |
| Art. 243F | Disqualifications | Person disqualified under state law for election to state legislature; minimum age 21 years (state may prescribe) |
| Art. 243G | Powers, authority, responsibilities | Legislature may endow panchayats with powers related to 29 subjects in 11th Schedule |
| Art. 243H | Powers to impose taxes | Legislature may authorise panchayats to levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls, fees |
| Art. 243I | State Finance Commission | Governor constitutes SFC every 5 years; recommends distribution of taxes between state and panchayats |
| Art. 243J | Audit of accounts | Legislature may make provisions for maintenance and auditing of panchayat accounts |
| Art. 243K | Elections to panchayats | State Election Commission — superintendence, direction and control; SEC appointed by Governor; removed only like HC judge |
| Art. 243L | Application to Union Territories | President may apply provisions to any UT with or without modifications |
| Art. 243M | Exemptions | Does NOT apply to: Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram; Hill areas of Manipur; Darjeeling district (West Bengal); Scheduled and Tribal Areas (5th/6th Schedule); J&K (now modified) |
| Art. 243N | Continuance of existing laws | Existing state laws on panchayats continue to operate for 1 year from commencement of amendment |
| Art. 243O | Bar on interference by courts | Courts cannot interfere in electoral matters of panchayats; validity of laws relating to delimitation/election cannot be questioned in courts (except Supreme Court under Art. 136) |
2.2 Compulsory vs Voluntary Provisions
Compulsory (Binding on all states)
- Three-tier structure (Art. 243B)
- Reservation for SC/ST and women ≥ 1/3 (Art. 243D)
- 5-year term; elections within 6 months of dissolution (Art. 243E)
- State Election Commission (Art. 243K)
- State Finance Commission every 5 years (Art. 243I)
Voluntary (Enabling — states may do)
- Devolution of 29 subjects (Art. 243G)
- Taxation powers to panchayats (Art. 243H)
- OBC reservation (Art. 243D)
- Women reservation beyond 1/3 — e.g., many states have 50%
- Representation to MPs/MLAs on panchayats (Art. 243C)
3. Three-Tier Panchayati Raj Structure
3.1 Level-wise Details
| Level | Body | Head (varies by state) | Approximate Numbers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Village (Gram) | Gram Panchayat | Sarpanch / Pradhan / Mukhiya | ~2.55 lakh |
| Intermediate (Block) | Panchayat Samiti / Block Panchayat / Mandal Panchayat | Pramukh / Block Pramukh / Adhyaksha | ~6,000 |
| District (Zila) | Zila Parishad / Zila Panchayat | Adhyaksha / President; CEO (IAS officer) | ~600 |
3.2 Reservation in PRIs (Art. 243D)
- SC/ST seats: Reserved in proportion to their population in each panchayat area — applies to both seats and offices of chairpersons
- Women: Not less than 1/3 of total seats reserved; offices of chairpersons at all three levels also — not less than 1/3 for women
- Women reservation extension: Several states have increased to 50% — Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, etc.
- OBC reservation: Optional — state legislature may provide; Supreme Court in K. Krishna Murthy v. Union of India (2010) laid down triple test for OBC reservation in local bodies
- Seats are rotated among constituencies after each election to ensure wide coverage
4. Gram Sabha — The Foundation of Democracy (Art. 243A)
The Gram Sabha is the primary democratic institution at the grassroots level. It consists of all registered voters in a village (or group of villages forming one panchayat). It is NOT an elected body — it is the entire electorate assembled.
4.1 Constitutional Position
- Art. 243A: "A Gram Sabha may exercise such powers and perform such functions at the village level as the Legislature of a State may, by law, provide."
- The Gram Sabha is the foundation — it is below the Gram Panchayat in the administrative hierarchy but above it in democratic legitimacy
- The elected Gram Panchayat is accountable to the Gram Sabha
4.2 Key Functions of Gram Sabha
- Approve annual budget and accounts of Gram Panchayat
- Review development plans and programmes
- Identify beneficiaries for government schemes (MGNREGA, housing, etc.)
- Social audit of government schemes
- Certificate of utilisation of funds
- Under PESA Act 1996 — in Scheduled (tribal) areas, Gram Sabha has additional powers: consent for land acquisition, manage minor forest produce, natural resources, prevent alienation of land
5. 11th Schedule — 29 Subjects (Art. 243G)
5.1 All 29 Subjects of 11th Schedule
- Agriculture including agricultural extension
- Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation, soil conservation
- Minor irrigation, water management, watershed development
- Animal husbandry, dairying and poultry
- Fisheries
- Social forestry and farm forestry
- Minor forest produce
- Small scale industries including food processing industries
- Khadi, village and cottage industries
- Rural housing
- Drinking water
- Fuel and fodder
- Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways, and other means of communication
- Rural electrification including distribution of electricity
- Non-conventional energy sources
- Poverty alleviation programme
- Education including primary and secondary schools
- Technical training and vocational education
- Adult and non-formal education
- Libraries
- Cultural activities
- Markets and fairs
- Health and sanitation including hospitals, primary health centres and dispensaries
- Family welfare
- Women and child development
- Social welfare including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded
- Welfare of the weaker sections, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
- Public distribution system
- Maintenance of community assets
6. State Election Commission & State Finance Commission
6.1 State Election Commission (Art. 243K)
- Constitutional basis: Art. 243K (PRIs) and Art. 243ZA (ULBs) — same SEC for both
- Composition: State Election Commissioner — appointed by Governor
- Removal: Only in the same manner and on the same grounds as a High Court judge — i.e., by President on an address of State Legislature (for proven misbehaviour or incapacity)
- Functions: Superintendence, direction and control of preparation of electoral rolls, and conduct of elections to panchayats and municipalities
- Service conditions: Cannot be varied to his disadvantage after appointment
- Independence: Not subject to control of ECI (Election Commission of India) — completely independent state body
6.2 State Finance Commission (Art. 243I)
- Constitutional basis: Art. 243I (PRIs) and Art. 243Y (ULBs) — same SFC for both
- Frequency: Constituted by Governor every 5 years
- Functions — Recommends:
- Distribution of net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls, fees leviable by state between state and panchayats/municipalities
- Determination of taxes, duties, tolls, fees to be assigned to panchayats/municipalities
- Grants-in-aid to panchayats/municipalities
- Measures to improve financial position of panchayats and municipalities
- Relationship with Central Finance Commission: The Central FC (Art. 280) recommends devolution to states, and since 11th FC, it also separately recommends grants to local bodies. 15th FC (2021–26) recommended Rs. 4.36 lakh crore for local bodies over 5 years — tied and untied grants
7. 74th Amendment — Municipalities (Arts 243P–243ZG)
7.1 Background
- Nagar Palika Bill 1989 — passed LS, rejected by RS during Rajiv Gandhi government
- 74th Amendment 1992 — passed with 73rd Amendment simultaneously; effective June 1, 1993 (note: different from 73rd's April 24, 1993)
- Added Part IX-A (Arts 243P to 243ZG) and 12th Schedule to the Constitution
7.2 Article-by-Article Overview
| Article | Provision | Key Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Art. 243P | Definitions | Committee, district, metropolitan area, municipal area, municipality, panchayat area, population, ward |
| Art. 243Q | Three types of municipalities | Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation — based on population/urban character |
| Art. 243R | Composition | Direct election + persons with special knowledge (no vote) + MPs/MLAs/MLCs + chairpersons of ward committees |
| Art. 243S | Ward Committees | Mandatory for municipalities with population 3 lakh or more; composition and territorial area to be specified by state |
| Art. 243T | Reservation | SC/ST — proportional to population; women — not less than 1/3; OBC — optional; offices of chairpersons also reserved |
| Art. 243U | Duration | 5-year term; fresh elections within 6 months of dissolution |
| Art. 243V | Disqualifications | Similar to PRIs; as per state law for state legislature membership |
| Art. 243W | Powers, functions | Legislature may endow with powers relating to 18 subjects in 12th Schedule |
| Art. 243X | Taxation | State legislature may authorise municipalities to levy taxes, duties, tolls, fees |
| Art. 243Y | State Finance Commission | Same SFC as for panchayats (Art. 243I) — recommends distribution for both |
| Art. 243Z | Audit of accounts | State legislature may provide for maintenance and audit of municipality accounts |
| Art. 243ZA | State Election Commission | Same SEC as for panchayats (Art. 243K) — conducts elections for both |
| Art. 243ZB | Application to UTs | President may apply to UTs with or without modifications |
| Art. 243ZC | Exemptions | Does NOT apply to scheduled areas and tribal areas; certain hill areas; industrial townships |
| Art. 243ZD | District Planning Committee (DPC) | State shall constitute DPC in each district to consolidate plans of panchayats and municipalities; prepare a draft development plan for the district |
| Art. 243ZE | Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC) | Metropolitan areas with 10 lakh or more population; not less than 2/3 elected members from ULBs and panchayats in proportion to their population |
| Art. 243ZF | Continuance of existing laws | Existing state laws on municipalities continue for 1 year |
| Art. 243ZG | Bar on court interference | No court shall interfere in electoral matters of municipalities |
8. Types of Urban Local Bodies
8.1 Constitutional Types (Art. 243Q)
| Type | Applicable to | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Nagar Panchayat | Areas in transition from rural to urban; small population | Emerging urban centres |
| Municipal Council | Smaller urban areas (medium towns) | District headquarters towns |
| Municipal Corporation | Larger urban areas (metro cities) | Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru, Kolkata |
8.2 Other Urban Bodies (Not Constitutionally Mandated)
| Body | Nature | Governing Authority |
|---|---|---|
| Town Area Committee | Semi-municipal; smaller towns; limited civic functions | State government |
| Notified Area Committee | Fast-growing towns that don't yet meet municipal council criteria; all members nominated (not elected) | State government |
| Cantonment Board | Governs civilian population in military cantonment areas | Ministry of Defence; Cantonment Act 2006 |
| Township | Established by large public sector undertakings (SAIL, BHEL, Hindustan Copper) for employees in remote areas | Concerned PSU |
| Port Trust | Provides civic amenities in port areas | Port authorities (central) |
| Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) | Created for Smart Cities Mission — special limited companies for project implementation | Central + State + ULB joint |
| Development Authority | Urban development, planning (e.g., DDA, BMDA, CMDA) | State government; not elected |
9. 12th Schedule — 18 Subjects (Art. 243W)
9.1 All 18 Subjects
- Urban planning including town planning
- Regulation of land use and construction of buildings
- Planning for economic and social development
- Roads and bridges
- Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes
- Public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management
- Fire services
- Urban forestry, protection of environment and promotion of ecological aspects
- Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections including the handicapped and mentally retarded
- Slum improvement and upgradation
- Urban poverty alleviation
- Provision of urban amenities and facilities: parks, gardens, playgrounds
- Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects
- Burials and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds and electric crematoria
- Cattle pounds; prevention of cruelty to animals
- Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths
- Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops, public conveniences
- Regulation of slaughterhouses and tanneries
10. District Planning Committee (DPC) & Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC)
10.1 District Planning Committee (Art. 243ZD)
- Mandate: Every state shall constitute a DPC in each district to consolidate plans prepared by panchayats and municipalities
- Composition: Not less than 4/5 of members elected from among elected members of Zila Parishad and municipalities in the district in proportion to rural/urban population
- Functions: Prepare draft development plan for the district as a whole; integrate rural and urban planning
- Chairperson: Designated by state government; forwards the plan to state government
- Status in practice: Constituted in most states but largely dysfunctional; overshadowed by state planning departments and District Collectors
10.2 Metropolitan Planning Committee (Art. 243ZE)
- Trigger: Metropolitan area = an area with population of 10 lakh or more (as defined under Art. 243P)
- Composition: Not less than 2/3 members elected from elected members of municipalities and chairpersons of panchayats in the metropolitan area, in proportion to population
- Functions: Prepare draft development plan for the metropolitan area
- Status in practice: Most cities with large populations (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru) lack functional MPCs; planning is done by Development Authorities (DDA, MMRDA, CMDA) which are not democratically accountable
11. 73rd vs 74th Amendment — Comprehensive Comparison
11.1 Detailed Comparison Table
| Feature | 73rd Amendment (PRIs) | 74th Amendment (ULBs) |
|---|---|---|
| Year effective | April 24, 1993 | June 1, 1993 |
| Applicable area | Rural | Urban |
| Part of Constitution | Part IX | Part IX-A |
| Article range | 243 to 243O (16 articles) | 243P to 243ZG (22 articles) |
| Schedule added | 11th Schedule (29 subjects) | 12th Schedule (18 subjects) |
| Structure | 3-tier: Village, Block, District | 3 types: Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation |
| Base democratic unit | Gram Sabha (Art. 243A) — all voters | Ward Committee (Art. 243S) — for 3 lakh+ bodies |
| Women reservation | ≥ 1/3 (Art. 243D) | ≥ 1/3 (Art. 243T) |
| SC/ST reservation | Proportional to population | Proportional to population |
| OBC reservation | Optional (state may provide) | Optional (state may provide) |
| Duration | 5 years; elections in 6 months if dissolved | 5 years; elections in 6 months if dissolved |
| State Election Commission | Art. 243K — same body for both | Art. 243ZA — same SEC |
| State Finance Commission | Art. 243I — same body for both | Art. 243Y — same SFC |
| Higher planning body | DPC (Art. 243ZD) | MPC for metro areas (Art. 243ZE) |
| Bar on court interference | Art. 243O | Art. 243ZG |
| Exemptions | Art. 243M — Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Hill areas, Tribal areas | Art. 243ZC — Scheduled & tribal areas, hill areas, industrial townships |
12. Issues with PRIs & ULBs
12.1 The 3Fs Problem — Funds, Functions, Functionaries
Funds (Finance)
- Most PRIs/ULBs have weak own-source revenue
- Dependent on state grants — discretionary and irregular
- Property tax collection in ULBs is poor
- SFC recommendations often not implemented
- Tied grants restrict local spending autonomy
Functions (Devolution)
- State legislatures have NOT devolved all 29/18 subjects
- Even devolved subjects often handled by state departments
- Para-statal bodies (DDA, CMDA, Water Boards) handle key functions
- DPC and MPC largely dysfunctional
- Devolution Index (MoPR) shows huge variation
Functionaries (Staff)
- No dedicated cadre for panchayats in most states
- Staff deputed from state — loyalty to state, not local body
- Technical staff (engineers, accountants) lacking
- District Collector/BDO exercises real power
- Capacity deficits at GP level especially acute
12.2 Other Critical Issues
- Parallel bodies: MGNREGA Gram Rozgar Sahayaks, SHG-bank linkage, NRLM structures bypass elected PRIs; Centrally Sponsored Schemes often have implementation agencies outside PRIs
- Women's reservation — proxy representation: Sarpanch Pati/Mukhiya Pati phenomenon — husbands and male relatives exercising power on behalf of elected women; real participation vs. formal representation
- Political interference: State governments use supersession of PRIs as political tool; delay in elections (Art. 243E mandates elections within 6 months of dissolution but states often delay)
- Urban governance fragmentation: Multiple agencies for water (water boards), transport (DSTC, BEST), planning (Development Authorities), health (state departments) — ULBs coordinate none of them
- Smart Cities vs elected cities: SPVs under Smart Cities Mission bypass elected municipal corporations — technocratic governance vs democratic governance tension
- OBC reservation controversy: Supreme Court in Vikas Kishanrao Gawali v. State of Maharashtra (2021) — triple test mandatory before OBC reservation in local bodies: dedicated commission, empirical data, overall 50% cap maintained
13. Current Affairs & Policy Developments
13.1 Government Initiatives for PRIs
| Initiative | Details |
|---|---|
| e-Gram Swaraj Portal | Launched 2020; single interface for planning, accounting, reporting of all gram panchayats; geo-tagging of assets; transparency in fund utilisation |
| Gram Swaraj Abhiyan / Sabki Yojana Sabka Vikas | Saturation of key schemes in every village; GP development plans; convergence of 29 schemes |
| Devolution Index | Ministry of Panchayati Raj; measures actual devolution of 3Fs by states; Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat typically top-ranked |
| Panchayat Development Index (PDI) | Based on 9 localised SDG themes; ranking of panchayats on SDG performance |
| Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA) | Capacity building scheme for PRIs; training of elected representatives; strengthening institutional infrastructure |
13.2 Government Initiatives for ULBs
| Scheme | Details |
|---|---|
| Smart Cities Mission (SCM) | 100 cities selected; Rs. 2.05 lakh crore investment; area-based development + pan-city initiatives; SPV model — raises democratic accountability questions |
| AMRUT 2.0 (2021–26) | Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation; 500 cities; focus on water supply, sewerage, urban greenery; Rs. 2.99 lakh crore |
| PM Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U) | Housing for all in urban areas; implemented through ULBs |
| Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban 2.0 | Garbage-free cities; ODF++; waste-to-energy; implemented through ULBs |
| National Urban Learning Platform (NULP) | Capacity building for urban local body functionaries and elected representatives |
13.3 Finance Commission & Local Bodies
- 15th Finance Commission (2021–26): Allocated Rs. 4,36,361 crore to local bodies — Rs. 2,36,805 crore for rural LBs (PRIs) and Rs. 1,21,055 crore for urban LBs; introduced performance-based grants; tied grants for sanitation and drinking water
- Conditions for grants: State must have published audited accounts, constitute SFC and implement recommendations; a reform-linked condition
- 16th Finance Commission: Constituted in December 2023; recommendations will be for 2026–31; likely to continue focus on local bodies
13.4 PESA Act 1996 — Cross-reference
Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 — extends PRI provisions to 5th Schedule areas with modifications. Key provisions: Gram Sabha is supreme; consent mandatory for land acquisition, mining; management of minor forest produce; prevention of alienation of tribal land. Covered comprehensively in Topic 18: UTs & Scheduled Areas.
14. Prelims PYQs
With reference to the Gram Sabha under the Constitution of India, consider the following statements: (1) It consists of all persons whose names appear in the electoral rolls for a village. (2) It may exercise such powers as the State Legislature by law provides.
Answer: Both (1) and (2) are correct — Art. 243A: Gram Sabha = all registered voters; its powers defined by state legislature
Which of the following is NOT included in the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution of India?
Answer: Fire services — Fire services is in the 12th Schedule (urban bodies), NOT in the 11th Schedule (panchayats). The 11th Schedule deals with rural subjects like agriculture, fisheries, rural housing, etc.
Under Article 243D of the Constitution, which of the following reservations in Panchayats is mandatory?
Answer: SC/ST (proportional to population) AND Women (not less than 1/3) are mandatory. OBC reservation is optional — states may or may not provide it.
The State Election Commissioner is appointed by the Governor and can be removed only in the same manner and on the same grounds as a:
Answer: Judge of a High Court (NOT a District Court, NOT a Supreme Court judge, NOT like a Governor). Art. 243K specifies removal like HC judge.
With reference to the State Finance Commission, consider the following: (1) It is constituted every 5 years. (2) One SFC serves both panchayats and municipalities. (3) Its recommendations are binding on the state government.
Answer: (1) and (2) are correct. (3) is WRONG — SFC recommendations are NOT binding; state government may or may not implement them.
Under Article 243M of the Constitution, the 73rd Amendment does NOT apply to which of the following?
Answer: Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Hill areas of Manipur are exempt. Note: Delhi is NOT exempt from 73rd Amendment (no panchayats in Delhi as it is fully urban, but the exemption under 243M is specifically for the states mentioned).
Under the 74th Constitutional Amendment, Ward Committees are mandatory for municipalities with population of:
Answer: 3 lakh or more — Art. 243S mandates Ward Committees only for municipalities whose population is 3 lakh or more. Below 3 lakh, states may or may not constitute them.
Which of the following bodies is NOT an Urban Local Body?
Answer: Zila Parishad is a rural body (panchayat), not an urban local body. Urban bodies include Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation, Notified Area Committee, Town Area Committee, Cantonment Board.
15. Mains PYQs
"Despite constitutional guarantees, local self-government in India has not evolved into effective units of self-government." Critically examine. (250 words)
Hint: Three-tier structure mandated, elections held — so constitutional minimum met. But: 3Fs not devolved; parallel bodies (DRDA, MGNREGA implementing agencies) bypass PRIs; SFC recommendations not implemented; District Collector retains administrative dominance; women's proxy representation; OBC reservation delayed by Supreme Court requirements; comparison with Kerala model of decentralisation as best practice; fiscal federalism needs vertical devolution to third tier.
Discuss the significance of Gram Sabha in strengthening grassroots democracy. What are the challenges in making it functional? (150 words)
Hint: Constitutional basis Art. 243A; parliament of village; accountability mechanism for Gram Panchayat; social audit; beneficiary identification; PESA strengthens Gram Sabha in tribal areas. Challenges: poor attendance; elite capture; women excluded in practice; irregular meetings; lack of agenda items; Sarpanch controls proceedings; administrative apathy; compare with active Gram Sabhas in Kerala (People's Plan Campaign).
What are the structural and functional problems of metropolitan governance in India? How can the 74th Amendment provisions help address them? (250 words)
Hint: Multiple agencies — CMDA/BDA for planning; BWSSB/CMWSSB for water; TNSTC/BMTC for transport; no coordination; not democratically accountable. Art. 243ZE MPC constituted in name only; SPVs under Smart Cities bypass elected ULBs; dysfunctional DPCs. Solutions: Operationalise MPCs; integrate para-statals under ULBs; strengthen ULB finances via property tax reform; ring-fenced urban cadre; use of municipal bonds.
The reservation of seats for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions has increased their numerical representation but not their substantive participation. Comment. (150 words)
Hint: 1/3 reservation since 1993; many states at 50%; 14 lakh+ elected women representatives. But: Sarpanch Pati phenomenon; women pressured by family/community; lack of financial and administrative power; low attendance at meetings; lack of education/training; contrast with Kerala and Rajasthan where women have exercised real power; solutions: RGSA training, direct bank transfers to elected women reps, awareness campaigns, strong SEC enforcement.
Examine the role of the District Planning Committee (DPC) and Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC) in integrating rural-urban planning. Why have these constitutional bodies remained largely ineffective? (250 words)
Hint: Constitutional mandate — Art. 243ZD (DPC) and Art. 243ZE (MPC); 4/5 elected members from ZP and ULBs; integrate rural (panchayat) and urban (municipality) plans into district/metro plan. Reality: DPCs constituted but meetings irregular; MPCs barely functional even in major metros; District Collector dominates planning; state governments jealous of power; Development Authorities (DDA, CMDA, MMRDA) handle real planning. Reforms: Regular DPC/MPC meetings mandated; dedicated secretariat; link Central grants to DPC/MPC functioning; integration with GIS-based planning; AMRUT and Smart Cities should route through DPC/MPC.
16. Revision Box — Panchayati Raj & Municipalities
Must-Remember — Committees, Numbers, Articles
- Balwantray Mehta (1957): 3-tier system; democratic decentralisation; Rajasthan first (1959)
- Ashok Mehta (1978): 2-tier (Mandal + Zila); party participation; not implemented
- G.V.K. Rao (1985): "Grass without roots" — strengthen PRIs; district as planning unit
- L.M. Singhvi (1986): Constitutional status for PRIs; Gram Sabha recognition; led to 73rd Amendment
- 64th Amendment Bill (1989): Failed — RS rejected Nagar Palika Bill
- Gram Panchayats: ~2.55 lakh
- Block/Panchayat Samiti: ~6,000
- Zila Parishad: ~600
- Women elected reps in PRIs: ~14 lakh+
- 11th Schedule: 29 subjects
- 12th Schedule: 18 subjects
- Ward Committees: mandatory for 3 lakh+ population municipalities
- MPC: mandatory for 10 lakh+ metro areas
- Art. 243A — Gram Sabha
- Art. 243B — Three-tier structure
- Art. 243D — Reservation (SC/ST + ≥1/3 women)
- Art. 243E — 5-year term; elections in 6 months
- Art. 243G — Powers (11th Schedule, 29 subjects)
- Art. 243I — State Finance Commission (5 yearly)
- Art. 243K — State Election Commission
- Art. 243M — Exemptions (Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram...)
- Art. 243Q — Three types of municipalities
- Art. 243S — Ward Committees (3 lakh+)
- Art. 243W — Powers (12th Schedule, 18 subjects)
- Art. 243ZD — District Planning Committee
- Art. 243ZE — Metropolitan Planning Committee (10 lakh+)
- 73rd Amendment: April 24, 1993
- 74th Amendment: June 1, 1993