The Post-Gupta Age (c. 550–750 AD) — Vakataka, Harshavardhana, Chalukyas of Badami & Pallavas of Kanchi

1. The Vakataka Dynasty of the Deccan

The Vakatakas were the most powerful successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaries (and matrimonial allies) of the Imperial Guptas. They are crucial for understanding the political bridge between the Gupta age and the Post-Gupta age in central India.

Political History of the Vakataka Dynasty

• Founder: Vindhyashakti (c. 255–275 AD), a Brahmana who established the dynasty in the Vindhyan region; mentioned in the Puranas.
• Pravarasena I (c. 275–335 AD) — the only Vakataka to assume the title Samrat; performed four Ashvamedha and a Vajapeya sacrifice; expanded the kingdom across Malwa, Berar and parts of Andhra.
• After Pravarasena I, the dynasty split into two main branches:
  • Main branch (Nandivardhana/Pravarapura branch) — Rudrasena I, Prithivishena I, Rudrasena II, Pravarasena II, Narendrasena, Prithivishena II.
  • Vatsagulma (Basim) branch — founded by Sarvasena, son of Pravarasena I; ruled from modern Washim in Maharashtra; significant patron of Ajanta Caves (Caves 16, 17, 19 under Harishena).
• Rudrasena II married Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya — a marriage of high political importance which made the Vakataka court a satellite of the Guptas during her long regency (c. 390–410 AD) for her minor sons.
• Pravarasena II shifted the capital to Pravarapura (modern Pavnar near Nagpur) and authored the Prakrit poem Setubandha (Ravanavaho) describing Rama's bridge to Lanka.
• Harishena (c. 475–500 AD) — last great king of the Vatsagulma branch; under him the latter phase of Ajanta paintings (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17, 19) was executed; his court poet Varahadeva composed the Cave 16 inscription.
• Decline: The dynasty collapsed by the early 6th century, absorbed by the Kalachuris, Nalas and ultimately the Chalukyas of Badami.

Vakataka Administration & Society — quick facts

• Brahmanical kingdom — performed Vedic sacrifices and granted Agraharas (tax-free villages) to Brahmanas.
• Crown prince title — Yuvaraja; officials included Sarvadhyaksha, Rajyadhikrita, Senapati, Pratihara.
• Patrons of Sanskrit and Prakrit literature; Pravarasena II's Setubandha is in Maharashtri Prakrit.
• The Vakataka–Gupta nexus is what allowed Chandragupta II's western campaign against the Sakas to succeed.

2. Ruling Dynasties of North India (Post-Gupta)

After the disintegration of the Guptas, four important dynasties — Maitraka, Maukhari, Gauda, Huna — controlled different parts of North India before the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar finally unified the Gangetic plain under Harshavardhana.

2.1 Maitraka Dynasty of North India

• Founder: Bhattaraka, originally a general (Senapati) under the Guptas, who established independent rule in Saurashtra with capital at Vallabhi around c. 475 AD.
• Followed the Shaiva faith but were tolerant patrons of Buddhism — Vallabhi became a celebrated Buddhist learning centre, considered second only to Nalanda.
• Dhruvasena II married a daughter of Harshavardhana and attended the Kannauj Assembly.
• Vallabhi was an important port and trade hub on the western coast trading with the Persian Gulf.
• Ended c. 776 AD with the Arab invasion of Sindh and gradual eclipse by the Pratiharas.

2.2 Maukhari Dynasty of North India

• Region: Kannauj and the Ganga–Yamuna Doab. Originally feudatories of the Guptas, they rose to independence c. 550 AD.
• Founder: Hari Varman; greatest king: Ishanavarman who defeated the Hunas, Gaudas and Andhras and assumed the title Maharajadhiraja.
• Allied with the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar through the marriage of Grahavarman with Rajyashri, sister of Harshavardhana.
• Grahavarman was killed by the Malava king (allied with Shashanka of Gauda) — this triggered Harsha's accession and his northern campaign.
• After Grahavarman, Kannauj passed to Harsha; the Maukhari dynasty thus merged into the Pushyabhuti empire.

2.3 Gauda Dynasty of North India

• Region: Bengal — capital at Karnasuvarna (near modern Murshidabad).
• Greatest king: Shashanka (c. 590–625 AD) — the first independent monarch of Bengal; founder of the Bengali era (per one tradition).
• Allied with Devagupta of Malwa; together they killed Grahavarman (Maukhari) and Rajyavardhana (Harsha's elder brother).
• Anti-Buddhist activities: According to Hiuen Tsang and Banabhatta, Shashanka cut down the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, broke the Buddha image at Pataliputra, and destroyed monasteries — a record likely exaggerated by hostile Buddhist sources.
• A devout Shaiva and patron of Brahmanism.
• After his death, Bengal fragmented (the period of Matsyanyaya — the law of fishes) until unified by Gopala of the Palas (mid-8th century).

2.4 Huna Dynasty of North India

• The White Huns (Hephthalites) entered India from the north-west in the late 5th century AD, occupying Sakala (Sialkot) as their capital.
• Toramana (c. 500 AD) — first powerful Huna ruler; defeated by Bhanugupta at the battle of Eran (Madhya Pradesh) where his name appears on the Eran boar inscription.
• Mihirakula (son of Toramana, c. 515–540 AD) — described by Hiuen Tsang as a "cruel persecutor of Buddhists"; ruled from Sakala; defeated by Yashodharman of Mandasor (Aulikara dynasty) at the Battle of Sondani (c. 528 AD) — commemorated in the famous Mandasor pillar inscription.
• The Hunas were eventually absorbed into the Indian socio-political fabric, becoming one of the constituent clans of the Rajputs (per the Agnikula myth).

3. The Pushyabhuti Dynasty & Harshavardhana (606–647 AD)

The Pushyabhutis (also called the Vardhana dynasty) ruled from Thanesar (Sthaneshvara, modern Haryana) and later from Kannauj. They produced Harshavardhana — the last great empire-builder of ancient North India.

3.1 Origin & Predecessors

• Founder: Pushyabhuti (semi-mythical) — a Shaiva who is said to have been blessed by Goddess Lakshmi via a Naga tantric.
• Prabhakaravardhana (c. 580–605 AD) — the first historical king; assumed the imperial title and consolidated Thanesar; married his daughter Rajyashri to Grahavarman of the Maukharis.
• Rajyavardhana (605–606 AD) — elder son of Prabhakaravardhana; killed treacherously by Shashanka of Gauda when he came to avenge his brother-in-law Grahavarman.

3.2 Harshavardhana (606–647 AD)

• Ascended the throne at 16 years after his brother's assassination. Soon shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj, which had been inherited from his widowed sister Rajyashri (whom he rescued from a forest pyre).
• Assumed the titles Siladitya, Sakalottarapathanatha (Lord of the entire North) and Maharajadhiraja.
• Extent of empire: from Punjab in the north-west to Bengal in the east, and from the Himalayas down to the Narmada — including Thanesar, Kannauj, Mithila, Bengal (defeated Shashanka's successors), Orissa, parts of Assam (Kamarupa under Bhaskaravarman allied with him).
• The Battle on the Narmada (c. 630 AD): Harsha advanced south to challenge Pulakeshin II of the Western Chalukyas — but was decisively repulsed on the banks of the Narmada. Pulakeshin's Aihole inscription (composed by Ravikirti) records this victory and forced Harsha to remain "Lord of the North" alone.
• Death: Harsha died in 647 AD without an heir. His minister Arjuna usurped the throne and even attacked the Chinese envoy Wang-hiuen-tse — leading to a joint Tibetan-Nepalese invasion that took Arjuna prisoner.

3.3 Hiuen Tsang's Account on Harshavardhana's Rule

Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang, c. 602–664 AD) — Chinese Buddhist pilgrim — stayed in India from 629 to 645 AD, spending eight years in Harsha's court and at Nalanda (under Silabhadra). His travelogue Si-yu-ki ("Records of the Western World") gives one of the most detailed pictures of 7th-century India.

3.4 Revenue Administration during the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

• Land revenue (Bhaga): 1/6th of the produce, paid in kind. Lower than the Gupta period, suggesting some easing on cultivators.
• Hiranya: tax paid in cash on certain commodities.
• Tulyameya: tax on goods bought and sold (a kind of trade tax).
• Bali: additional cess.
• Revenue distribution (per Hiuen Tsang):
  1. 1/4 → administration and royal expenses.
  2. 1/4 → salaries of public servants.
  3. 1/4 → reward to intellectuals (scholars, scribes, monks).
  4. 1/4 → religious gifts and charity.
• Land grants accelerated — both Agraharas (to Brahmanas) and secular grants to officials in lieu of salary became common, planting the seeds of Indian feudalism.

3.5 Society during the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

• Rigid four-fold varna hierarchy — Brahmanas at the top followed by Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras. Untouchability was an established practice.
• Position of women declined further — child marriage, dowry, sati and pardah became common in upper-caste society. However, the institution of Swayamvara survived (Rajyashri's marriage is described in Harshacharita).
• Widow remarriage was discouraged in upper varnas; Rajyashri attempted self-immolation after her husband's death.
• Slavery continued but on a smaller scale than in earlier periods.
• Vegetarianism was widespread among the upper castes — beef consumption was prohibited and the cow was sacred.

3.6 Judicial Organization during the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

• The king was the supreme judge; he heard appeals personally.
• Punishments were harsher than in Gupta times — included mutilation, life imprisonment, exile, and trial by ordeal (by fire, water, weighing or poison) as recorded by Hiuen Tsang.
• Crimes against the king and the state were treated as the most serious.
• Local disputes were settled by village headmen or guild courts; the formal judiciary largely handled criminal matters.

3.7 Towns and Cities during the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

• Hiuen Tsang observed that many cities had shrunk compared to the Gupta age — Pataliputra was in ruins, Vaishali and Kapilvastu deserted, Sravasti almost depopulated.
• Active urban centres: Kannauj (capital, "as far as the eye could see — fine palaces, gardens, lakes"), Thanesar, Prayag, Varanasi, Vallabhi, Mathura, Kanchi.
• Decline in urbanism is linked to the decline of long-distance trade after the fall of Rome and the rise of the feudal economy.

3.8 Kannauj Assembly & Prayag Assembly

4. Ruling Dynasties of South India (Post-Gupta)

South India in the Post-Gupta age saw a creative explosion under multiple dynasties — Ikshvakus (Andhra), Chalukyas of Badami (Karnataka), Pallavas of Kanchi (Tamil Nadu), Kadambas (Karnataka), Gangas of Mysore (Mysore), and the Kalabhras (Tamil region). The Chalukya–Pallava conflict defined the political map; the Aihole–Pattadakal–Mahabalipuram triangle defined the architectural map.

4.1 Ikshvaku Dynasty

• Succeeded the Satavahanas in the eastern Deccan (Krishna–Guntur region of Andhra Pradesh) in the 3rd century AD.
• Capital: Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda).
• Founder: Vasishthiputra Sri Santamula; greatest king Virapurushadatta.
• Important patrons of Mahayana Buddhism — Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati flourished under their rule; the royal women (queens) in particular endowed numerous stupas and viharas, while the kings remained Brahmanical.
• Overthrown by the Pallavas in the early 4th century AD.

4.2 The Kadamba Kingdom

• Founder: Mayurasharman (c. 345 AD) — a Brahmana from Talagunda who, insulted by a Pallava guard at Kanchi, raised an army, defeated the Pallavas and carved out a kingdom in north Karnataka.
• Capital: Banavasi (Vaijayanti) — the oldest capital of Karnataka.
• The Talagunda Pillar Inscription (composed by Kubja) is the principal source for the dynasty.
• Greatest king: Kakusthavarman — matrimonial alliances with the Guptas and Vakatakas.
• Conquered by the Chalukyas of Badami under Pulakeshin I around 540 AD.

4.3 The Ganga Rulers of Mysore (Western Gangas)

• Founder: Konganivarman Madhava (c. 350 AD); capital initially at Kuvalala (Kolar), later Talakad.
• Ruled the Gangavadi region (southern Karnataka) for nearly seven centuries (c. 350–1000 AD) as feudatories of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.
• Strong Jain patrons — minister Chamundaraya commissioned the monolithic Gommateshvara (Bahubali) statue at Shravanabelagola (c. 982 AD) — at 57 ft, the tallest monolithic statue in India.
• Not to be confused with the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga (Konarak Sun Temple).

4.4 Kalabhra Dynasty (c. 3rd–6th century AD)

• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country after the decline of the Sangam Age dynasties (Chera, Chola, Pandya) — a period traditionally called the "Kalabhra Interregnum" or the "Dark Age" of Tamil history.
• Patrons of Buddhism and Jainism; they confiscated Brahmadeya villages and disrupted the established Brahmanical order — hence portrayed as "evil kings" in later Brahmanical texts (e.g., Velvikudi Grant calls them "Kali Arasar" — evil kings).
• Overthrown jointly by the Pandyas under Kadungon and the Pallavas under Simhavishnu in the late 6th century AD, restoring the classical Tamil order.

5. The Western Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)

The Western Chalukyas of Badami were the most powerful Deccan dynasty between the 6th and 8th centuries AD, ruling from Vatapi (modern Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka).

5.1 Political History

• Founder: Pulakeshin I (c. 543–566 AD) — established Badami as the capital; performed the Ashvamedha.
• Kirtivarman I — defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi, Mauryas of Konkan, and the Nalas.
• Mangalesa — regent who annexed the Kalachuris of central India.
• Pulakeshin II (610–642 AD) — greatest ruler; details below.
• Vikramaditya I (655–681 AD) — son of Pulakeshin II; recovered Badami from the Pallavas after 12 years.
• Vikramaditya II (733–746 AD) — defeated the Pallava Nandivarman II and entered Kanchi but refrained from destroying it; instead made endowments to the Kailashanatha temple. His queen Lokamahadevi commissioned the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal to commemorate this victory.
• Kirtivarman II (last ruler) — overthrown by the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga around 753 AD.

5.2 Pulakeshin II (610–642 AD) — the greatest Chalukya

• Son of Kirtivarman I; usurped the throne from his uncle Mangalesa.
• The Aihole Inscription (composed by his court poet Ravikirti, 634 AD) — Sanskrit prashasti in the Meguti Jain temple — is the chief source for his career.
• Northern campaign: Defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada (c. 630 AD), preventing his expansion into the Deccan. Earned the title Parameshvara (Supreme Lord).
• Eastern campaign: Conquered Vengi (Krishna–Godavari Doab) and installed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as viceroy — this branch later became the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• Southern campaign: Defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I, advancing up to the Kaveri.
• Foreign relations: Received an embassy from the Persian Sassanian king Khusrau II (depicted in Cave 1 of Ajanta); the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his court and described his rule favourably.
• Death: Killed in 642 AD when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I "Mamalla" sacked Badami; the Pallava assumed the title Vatapikonda ("Conqueror of Vatapi"). Recorded in an inscription left on a Badami boulder.

5.3 Art & Architecture of the Western Chalukyas of Badami

The Chalukyas pioneered an experimental fusion of Nagara (north Indian) and Dravida (south Indian) styles — sometimes called the proto-Vesara style — across three monumental sites.

(a) Aihole Monuments — "Cradle of Indian Temple Architecture"

• Aihole has over 70 temples, the earliest experiments in Hindu temple form.
• Lad Khan Temple (c. 450 AD) — earliest, modeled on the wooden village assembly hall (panchayat).
• Durga Temple — apsidal plan (like a Buddhist chaitya), with a Nagara shikhara; sculpted niches with Mahishasuramardini, Vishnu, Shiva-Nataraja.
• Hucchimalli Temple — early Nagara shikhara.
• Meguti Jain Temple — bears the Aihole Inscription of Pulakeshin II (634 AD) — the earliest dated Chalukya inscription.
• Ravanaphadi cave — rock-cut, with a magnificent Nataraja and Saptamatrikas.

(b) Badami Monuments — Rock-cut Caves

• Four rock-cut caves carved into the red sandstone cliffs around Agastya Lake:
  1. Cave I — Shaiva: Nataraja with 18 arms in 9 dance poses.
  2. Cave II — Vaishnava: Vishnu as Trivikrama and Varaha.
  3. Cave III — Vaishnava (largest & finest, 578 AD by Mangalesa): seated Vishnu on Sesha; depicts Narasimha, Varaha, Harihara, Trivikrama. Bears an inscription of Mangalesa.
  4. Cave IV — Jain: Mahavira and Parshvanatha.
• Bhutanatha temple group on the lake — structural temples in early Nagara/Dravida style.
• Cave III's Khusrau embassy mural is a key piece of evidence for Chalukya–Sassanian contact.

(c) Pattadakal Monuments — UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987)

• Pattadakal (literally "coronation stone") was the royal coronation and commemoration centre. It has 10 major temples displaying both Nagara and Dravida styles side by side.
• Dravida style temples:
  • Virupaksha temple (745 AD) — built by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate Vikramaditya II's victory over the Pallavas at Kanchi; modeled on the Kailashanatha temple of Kanchi.
  • Mallikarjuna temple — built by Queen Trailokyamahadevi, sister of Lokamahadevi; smaller replica of Virupaksha.
  • Sangameshvara temple — earliest Dravida (built by Vijayaditya).
• Nagara style temples: Kashivishvanatha, Galaganatha, Papanatha, Jambulinga.
• Jain Narayana temple — built by the Rashtrakuta Krishna II, post-Chalukya addition.

5.4 Supremacy Conflict between Chalukyas & Pallavas

A century-long see-saw struggle from c. 610 to 753 AD over the Vengi country (Krishna–Godavari Doab):

The mutual exhaustion paved the way for the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga to overthrow the Chalukyas (753 AD) and for the Pallavas to be eventually displaced by the Imperial Cholas (9th c.).

6. The Pallava Dynasty of Kanchi

The Pallavas ruled from Kanchipuram in northern Tamil Nadu from c. 275–897 AD, becoming the most important post-Sangam power. Their two-and-a-half centuries of architectural patronage at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) and Kanchi laid the foundation of Dravida temple architecture.

6.1 Political History of the Pallava Dynasty

• Origin: Debated — Manipallavam (Sri Lanka)? local Tondaimandalam chieftains? Possibly originated as feudatories of the Satavahanas in Andhra (early "Prakrit charters" Pallavas) and shifted south.
• Early Pallavas (Prakrit charters): Sivaskandavarman — issued the Hirahadagalli plates; capital at Kanchi.
• Simhavishnu (c. 575–600 AD) — first imperial Pallava; defeated the Kalabhras and recovered the Tamil country up to the Kaveri.
• Mahendravarman I (600–630 AD) — son of Simhavishnu; titles Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Mattavilasa; originally Jain, converted to Shaivism by Appar (Tirunavukkarasar); wrote the Sanskrit farce Mattavilasa Prahasana; pioneer of rock-cut cave temples in Tamil country; defeated by Pulakeshin II at Pullalur.
• Narasimhavarman I "Mamalla" (630–668 AD) — greatest Pallava; sacked Badami in 642 AD, killed Pulakeshin II, assumed title Vatapikonda; sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to install his ally Manavarma. Founded Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) as a port and architectural centre; Hiuen Tsang visited his court.
• Paramesvaravarman I — defeated Vikramaditya I.
• Narasimhavarman II "Rajasimha" (700–728 AD) — peaceful king; builder of the Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram; sent embassies to China.
• Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (731–796 AD) — long reign; built the Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchi; defeated by Vikramaditya II Chalukya.
• Aparajitavarman — last Pallava; defeated and killed by the Chola Aditya I around 897 AD, ending the dynasty.

6.2 Art & Architecture of the Pallava Dynasty — Four Stages

Pallava architecture evolved through four distinct stages, named after the kings under whom they flourished:

(a) Pancha Rathas (Mahabalipuram) — Mamalla Stage

• Five monolithic temples cut from a single granite outcrop, each named after a Pandava + Draupadi:
  1. Draupadi Ratha — square, hut-like with a curved (chaitya) roof — modelled on a thatched village shrine.
  2. Arjuna Ratha — square, two-storeyed with octagonal sikhara — earliest vimana form.
  3. Bhima Ratha — rectangular with a long barrel-vaulted roof.
  4. Dharmaraja Ratha — largest, three-storeyed pyramidal vimana — the prototype of all later Dravida temples.
  5. Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha — apsidal (gajaprishtha = elephant's back) plan.
• Though called "rathas" they are not ratha chariots — they were monolithic experimental temples, mostly unfinished.

(b) Shore Temple of Kanchi/Mahabalipuram — Rajasimha Stage

• Built by Narasimhavarman II "Rajasimha" in the early 8th century AD on the Coromandel coast at Mamallapuram.
• One of the earliest structural stone temples in South India (the previous tradition was rock-cut).
• Has three shrines — two Shiva (one facing east, one west) flanking a Vishnu shrine (Anantasayi).
• Pyramidal Dravida vimana; surrounded by a wall topped with seated Nandi bulls.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site (1984) — part of the "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram".

(c) Kailashanatha Temple of Kanchi — Rajasimha Stage

• Built by Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha at Kanchipuram, completed by his son Mahendravarman III; dedicated to Shiva.
• Earliest fully developed structural Dravida temple — direct model for the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal (built by the Chalukya queen Lokamahadevi to copy it).
• Features: pyramidal vimana, enclosed prakara wall, 58 sub-shrines along the wall, ornate niches with Somaskanda, Tripurantaka, Lingodbhava.
• Vikramaditya II Chalukya, after occupying Kanchi, made endowments to this temple and inscribed his admiration in Kannada — a rare instance of inter-dynastic appreciation.

7. Social Structure during the Post-Gupta Age

• Varna rigidification: The 4-fold varna system became more rigid. Brahmanas consolidated their position through tax-free land grants (Agraharas, Brahmadeyas). The Smritis of this period (Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati, Katyayana) hardened the rules of endogamy and untouchability.
• Proliferation of jatis: Hundreds of sub-castes (jatis) appear, often based on occupation; mixed-caste origins are systematized (Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages).
• Untouchability: Hiuen Tsang noted that Chandalas had to mark themselves and could not live within town walls — a major decline from earlier periods.
• Decline in women's status:
  • Marriageable age fell sharply — pre-puberty marriage became normative.
  • Sati became prevalent in Rajasthan and Kashmir; spread southward over time.
  • Property rights of women were restricted to stridhana.
  • Education was largely denied to women of the upper castes (some queens did remain learned).
• Slavery: Continued; both male (dasa) and female (dasi) slaves were used; war captives, the indebted, and the famine-struck were enslaved.
• Feudal class emergence: The frequent land grants created an intermediate landlord/samanta class — the social face of Indian feudalism. Cultivators slid into tenants and serfs (halikas).
• Religious life: Brahmanism resurgent — bhakti, tantra, Puranic Hinduism (Vaishnavism and Shaivism) dominated. Buddhism survived mainly in Bengal, Bihar, and at Nalanda & Vallabhi. Jainism flourished under the Gangas (Shravanabelagola) and Pallava-Chola country.
• Education: Nalanda (Mahayana stronghold), Vallabhi (mixed), Kanchi as the Ghatika of the South, Banaras, and Mithila were major centres. Royal patronage supported them through village endowments.

8. Eastern India during the Post-Gupta Age

8.1 Rulers of Bengal

• Gaudas under Shashanka (c. 590–625 AD) — first independent Bengali kingdom; capital Karnasuvarna; Shashanka allied with Devagupta of Malwa against Harsha and the Maukharis (killed Grahavarman and Rajyavardhana).
• Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa at this same time allied with Harsha against Shashanka — pincer attack on Bengal.
• After Shashanka's death (c. 625 AD) and Harsha's death (647 AD), Bengal sank into a period of anarchy called Matsyanyaya ("the law of fishes — big fish eats small fish") — graphically described in the Khalimpur copper-plate of Dharmapala.
• This anarchy was ended when the local elders elected Gopala (c. 750 AD), founder of the Pala dynasty — a unique instance of a king elected by his subjects in ancient India.

8.2 Rulers of Assam (Kamarupa)

• Varman dynasty of Kamarupa — founded by Pushyavarman (c. 4th c. AD) under Samudragupta's overlordship (listed as a frontier kingdom in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription).
• Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 AD) — greatest Varman king; capital at Pragjyotishpura (modern Guwahati); allied with Harshavardhana against Shashanka; attended the Kannauj Assembly and was honoured by Harsha; Hiuen Tsang visited his court and described the kingdom in Si-yu-ki.
• Nidhanpur copper plates of Bhaskaravarman record the renewal of land grants made by his predecessor.
• After Bhaskaravarman, the Varmans were succeeded by the Mlechchha (Salasthamba) and later Pala dynasties of Kamarupa.

9. Current Affairs Link

• Pattadakal — frequently in news for conservation, UNESCO reports; recent ASI restoration of the Virupaksha temple.
• Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) — hosted PM Modi–President Xi Jinping informal summit (October 2019) which placed the Pallava heritage and India–China cultural links (Hiuen Tsang) on the diplomatic map. Newly excavated Pallava-era sculptures continue to surface near the Shore Temple after the 2004 tsunami.
• Nalanda — the new Nalanda University at Rajgir (2014) revives the ancient institution patronised under Kumaragupta and described by Hiuen Tsang under Harsha.
• Shravanabelagola Mahamastakabhisheka — once-in-12-years anointing of the Gommateshwara (last held 2018) — Western Ganga legacy.
• Vakataka Ajanta paintings — ongoing ASI documentation and conservation of Caves 1, 2, 16, 17, 19, 26 (the Harishena phase).

10. Previous Year Questions (UPSC)