The Mauryan Empire (324–185 BC)

Conceptual Clarity — Why the Mauryan Empire Matters

Key terms to internalise: Adhyaksha (department head), Mahamatra (high officer / Dhamma Mahamatra), Rajuka (provincial administrator/judge), Pradeshika (district officer), Yukta (subordinate revenue officer), Sita (royal farms), Bali/Bhaga (land taxes), Dhamma (Ashoka's ethical code, not Buddhism per se), Devanampiya Piyadasi (Ashoka's official title in inscriptions).

1. Different Views on the Origin of the Mauryas

The social and ethnic origin of the Mauryan dynasty is debated because contemporary sources differ. The question matters because Chandragupta's rise represented the political triumph of a non-Kshatriya lineage and a frontier upbringing.

Summary of Sources on Origin

Modern verdict (RS Sharma, Romila Thapar): The Moriya-Kshatriya theory has the strongest evidence — it agrees with Buddhist sources (closer in time), with Chandragupta's eventual conversion to Jainism (suggesting heterodox affiliation), and with the absence of any orthodox Brahmin priests in Mauryan court records.

2. The Mauryan Dynasty — Rulers

2.1 Chandragupta Maurya (324/321 – 297 BC)

• Rise to power: Overthrew the last Nanda king Dhana Nanda (called Agrammes/Xandrames by Greeks) around 324–321 BC with the strategic guidance of Kautilya / Chanakya / Vishnugupta, his Brahmin mentor and author of the Arthashastra.
• Conquest of the north-west: Liberated Punjab and Sindh from Seleucid (Greek) garrisons left behind by Alexander.
• Seleucid War (c. 305 BC): Defeated Seleucus Nikator, Alexander's general. By treaty Chandragupta received Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) and Paropamisadae (Kabul) in exchange for 500 war elephants. The treaty included a matrimonial alliance (epigamia).
• Megasthenes was sent as Seleucid ambassador to Chandragupta's court at Pataliputra; he wrote Indica.
• Empire's extent: Afghanistan to Bengal, Hindu Kush to Mysore — first time the subcontinent was politically unified up to the Vindhyas (the deep south was reached only under Bindusara/Ashoka).
• Religion & death: According to Jaina tradition (Parishishtaparvan), Chandragupta abdicated, became a Jain monk under Bhadrabahu, migrated to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) and ended his life by Sallekhana (ritual fast unto death) c. 297 BC.

2.2 Bindusara (297 – 273 BC)

• Title "Amitraghata" (Slayer of Foes / Greek Amitrochates). Consolidated his father's gains; said by the Tibetan historian Taranatha to have conquered "the land between the two seas" — i.e., extended Mauryan reach into the Deccan.
• Maintained diplomatic relations with the Hellenistic world. Deimachos was sent as ambassador by Seleucid king Antiochus I, and Dionysius by Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt.
• Famously asked Antiochus to send him "sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist" — Antiochus replied that Greek law forbade selling a sophist (philosopher).
• Followed the Ajivika sect (Pingalavatsa was his court Ajivika).
• Faced a revolt at Taxila, which Ashoka (as Kumara/prince) was sent to suppress as Viceroy of Uttarapatha (Taxila).

2.3 Ashoka (268 – 232 BC)

The greatest Mauryan ruler and arguably the most celebrated ruler in Indian history. Known in his inscriptions as Devanampiya Piyadasi ("Beloved of the Gods, Of Pleasing Appearance"). His name "Ashoka" appears only in a handful of inscriptions (notably the Maski, Gujarra, Nittur and Udegolam Minor Rock Edicts) — these helped confirm Devanampiya Piyadasi was indeed Ashoka.

Accession

• As prince, served as Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain (Avantirashtra) under Bindusara.
• According to Buddhist legends, fought a succession war against his brothers (Sushima/Susima); coronation delayed by 4 years (268 BC formal coronation).
• Married Devi (Vidisha-Mahadevi) at Vidisha — their children Mahendra and Sanghamitra later carried Buddhism to Sri Lanka.

Kalinga War (261 BC) — turning point of Ashoka's reign

• Fought in the 8th regnal year of Ashoka against the powerful kingdom of Kalinga (modern Odisha + parts of Andhra), which had broken away from Mauryan suzerainty.
• Kalinga's strategic value: rich rice country, control of Bay of Bengal trade with South-East Asia.
• Consequences:
  • Ashoka renounced Digvijaya (military conquest) for Dhammavijaya (conquest through Dhamma).
  • The war drum (Bherighosha) was replaced by the drum of Dhamma (Dhammaghosha).
  • Ashoka adopted Buddhism — became an upasaka (lay disciple) and, according to Buddhist tradition, later a bhikkhu-gatika (associated with the Sangha).
  • Kalinga was incorporated as a province with its own special edicts (the Separate Kalinga Edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada) urging humane treatment of subjects.
  • Significantly, Edicts XI–XIII (which mention Kalinga) were omitted at Dhauli and Jaugada — evidently to avoid reopening wounds in the conquered region.

Propagation of Buddhism by Ashoka

Ashoka's Dhamma — what it was and what it was not

2.4 Successors and Brihadratha (232 – 185 BC)

• After Ashoka's death (232 BC), the empire fragmented under weak successors over ~50 years.
• Traditional list (Puranas): Dasharatha (Nagarjuni Hill caves bear his Ajivika dedications), Samprati (a Jaina patron), Shalishuka, Devavarman, Shatadhanu, and finally Brihadratha.
• Brihadratha was the last Mauryan emperor. In 185 BC he was assassinated during a military review by his own commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the Shunga dynasty. This event is recorded in the Harshacharita of Banabhatta (7th century AD).

3. Mauryan Administration

The Mauryan administration was the first centralised imperial bureaucracy in India. Our knowledge of it is reconstructed from three principal sources: Kautilya's Arthashastra (idealised theory), Megasthenes' Indica (eyewitness, but selective), and Ashokan inscriptions (direct evidence).

3.1 Central Government

3.2 Provincial Administration

The empire was divided into five (later four) major provinces (Pradeshas / Chakras), each governed by a Kumara (royal prince) or Aryaputra:

3.3 District & Village Administration

• Pradeshika — District officer (~modern DM); responsible for general administration of a Pradesha.
• Rajuka — Important Mauryan officer combining revenue and judicial functions; Ashoka in Pillar Edict IV grants Rajukas independence in judicial matters, comparing their role to that of "an experienced nurse" entrusted with a child.
• Yukta — Subordinate revenue officer, treasury work.
• Gopa — In charge of 5 or 10 villages; maintained census, boundaries, accounts.
• Gramika / Gramini — Village headman, non-paid; elected by the village.
• Sthanika — Officer in charge of a quarter of a janapada.

3.4 City Administration — Pataliputra (Megasthenes' account)

Pataliputra was administered by a board of 30 members divided into 6 committees of 5 each:

3.5 Espionage and Surveillance

Arthashastra elaborately describes an espionage system — Gudhapurushas (secret agents). Two main types:

• Sansthas (stationary spies): Five sub-types — Kapatika-chhatra (fraudulent student), Udasthita (apostate monk), Grihapatika (householder), Vaidehika (merchant), Tapasa (ascetic).
• Sancharas (wandering spies): Sattri (informer), Tikshna (assassin/desperado), Rasada (poisoner), Bhikshuki (mendicant woman).

3.6 Judicial System

• King was supreme judge.
• Dharmasthiya courts dealt with civil matters; Kantakashodhana courts dealt with criminal/anti-state matters (the very name means "removal of thorns" — i.e., antisocial elements).
• Punishments were harsh by Arthashastra — fines, mutilation and capital punishment.
• Ashoka's Pillar Edict IV introduced Vyavahara-samata (equality in judicial procedure) and Danda-samata (equality in punishment).
• Ashoka also granted three days of respite (Pillar Edict IV) to those condemned to death before execution.

3.7 Army & Military Administration (Megasthenes)

Megasthenes records an army of 6,00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants and 8,000 chariots. The army was managed by a War Office of 30 members organised in 6 committees of 5 each:

Note: Megasthenes' figures are likely exaggerated; the existence of a separate naval committee is the earliest reference to an Indian navy.

4. Economy of the Mauryas

The Mauryan economy was largely state-controlled. Kautilya's Arthashastra treats agriculture, mining and trade as essentially state enterprises — earning the state the bulk of revenue.

4.1 Agriculture

• Sita lands were crown lands cultivated directly by the state under the Sitadhyaksha, using state slaves, hired labourers and prisoners.
• Janapada lands belonged to peasants who paid revenue.
• State undertook clearing of forests, settling cultivators in newly-cleared areas (shudras were settled here — RS Sharma emphasises this).
• Iron tools (now widely available) revolutionised agriculture; the Mauryan period saw large-scale paddy transplantation in the middle Ganga plain.
• Irrigation: The Sudarshana lake at Girnar (Saurashtra) was constructed by Pushyagupta, governor under Chandragupta, and its channels added by Tushaspha, the Yavana governor under Ashoka (recorded in Rudradaman's Junagadh inscription).

4.2 Land Revenue and Taxation

4.3 Trade, Industry & Currency

• State monopolies: mines, salt, liquor, gambling, prostitution, arms-manufacture, ship-building — all under respective adhyakshas.
• Punch-marked silver coins (called Karshapana / Pana) were the main currency — usually 32 ratti silver. Copper Karshapanas (Mashaka, Kakini) circulated for daily transactions. Gold coins (Suvarna, Nishka) are mentioned but rare.
• Roads: The Royal Road from Pataliputra to Taxila (later the Grand Trunk Road) was 1,850 miles long with milestones and rest houses every 10 stadia — described by Megasthenes.
• Foreign trade: With Hellenistic west — through Bharukaccha (Broach) and the Persian Gulf; with Sri Lanka; with South-East Asia via Tamralipti (Bengal).
• Crafts: Mauryan polished stone — the famous Sarnath Lion Capital, the Didarganj Yakshi, polished sandstone pillars — testify to a high-quality state-supported craft industry. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) reached its peak in the Mauryan period.

5. Mauryan Society

• Varna system was firmly established; Arthashastra strictly upholds Brahmanical varnashrama, prescribing differential punishments based on varna.
• Megasthenes' Seven Classes: Megasthenes described Indian society as divided into 7 endogamous classes (not 4 varnas) —
  1. Philosophers (Brahmins & Shramanas)
  2. Farmers / Husbandmen (largest group, exempt from war)
  3. Soldiers (well-paid, second largest)
  4. Herdsmen & hunters
  5. Artisans & traders
  6. Overseers / Spies / Magistrates
  7. Councillors & Assessors
  This classification differs from the four-varna scheme — historians explain it as Megasthenes confusing varna with occupation.
• Slavery: Megasthenes famously claimed "there are no slaves in India". However, Arthashastra has an entire chapter (Dasakalpa) on slaves — Megasthenes probably meant that Indian slavery was milder than Greek slavery (slaves had rights, could own property, could buy freedom; Arya children could not be sold into slavery).
• Position of women: Polygamy was practiced in royal households. Women worked as ganikas (state-regulated courtesans, under Ganikadhyaksha), spinners, weavers, midwives and even spies. Arthashastra prescribes alimony for divorced/abandoned women and recognises divorce in cases of cruelty or impotence.
• Heterodox sects: Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas all flourished. Barabar Hill caves were donated by Ashoka to Ajivikas (Lomas Rishi cave); Nagarjuni Hill caves donated by Dasharatha to Ajivikas.
• Education: Taxila was the great university — Chanakya himself taught here. Pataliputra had its court of scholars. Brahmi script became widely used (Ashoka's edicts are largely in Brahmi).

6. Sources of the Mauryan Empire

Mauryan history is reconstructed from two broad source streams: Archaeological (largely Ashokan inscriptions, numismatic and material remains) and Literary (Indian and Foreign).

6.1 Archaeological Sources

A. Inscriptions — the most authentic source

Ashokan inscriptions are the first dated inscriptional record of Indian history. James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script of Ashokan edicts in 1837. They are written in Prakrit in four scripts:

14 Major Rock Edicts (MRE I–XIV)

Find spots of the 14 MRE: Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan, Kharoshthi), Mansehra (Pakistan, Kharoshthi), Girnar (Gujarat), Sopara (Maharashtra — only Edict VIII), Yerragudi (Andhra), Dhauli (Odisha — Edicts XI–XIII replaced by Separate Kalinga Edicts), Jaugada (Odisha — same omission).

Minor Rock Edicts (MRE I–III)

• Found at 15+ sites including Maski, Gujarra, Nittur, Udegolam, Brahmagiri, Yerragudi, Bairat, Sahasram, Rupnath.
• Maski, Gujarra, Nittur and Udegolam are crucial because they explicitly name "Ashoka" instead of just "Devanampiya Piyadasi" — Maski (discovered by C. Beadon in 1915 in Karnataka) was the first to make this identification certain.
• Speak of Ashoka's personal involvement with the Sangha — "For more than two and a half years I was a lay disciple, but I did not exert myself zealously. But now, for more than a year, I have drawn closer to the Sangha and have exerted myself zealously."
• Bhabru / Bairat Edict (Rajasthan) — Ashoka addresses the Sangha and recommends 7 specific Buddhist texts (Vinaya-samukasa, Aliya-vasani, Anagatabhayani, Muni-gatha, Moneya-sute, Upatisa-pasine, Laghulovada) for study.

Pillar Edicts — Major (PE I–VII) and Minor

• 7 Major Pillar Edicts issued in Ashoka's 26th/27th regnal year (last set of edicts). Found at Topra (originally Topra, Haryana; relocated to Delhi-Topra by Firoz Shah Tughlaq), Meerut (relocated to Delhi-Meerut), Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (Bihar), Allahabad-Kosam (Prayagraj) and Sanchi/Sarnath/Nigali Sagar (some carry only some PEs).
• PE VII (longest, on Delhi-Topra pillar) summarises Ashoka's achievements — Dhamma-Mahamatras, planting trees, digging wells, building rest houses, organising welfare for humans and animals.
• Minor Pillar Edicts:
  • Sarnath / Sanchi / Allahabad-Kosam Schism Edict — warns against creating schisms in the Sangha; expelled monks/nuns to wear white robes.
  • Rummindei (Lumbini) Pillar Edict — commemorates Ashoka's visit; declares Lumbini the birthplace of the Buddha; grants tax concession (1/8th bhaga).
  • Nigali Sagar Pillar Edict — records that Ashoka doubled the stupa of Kanakamuni Buddha in his 14th regnal year.
  • Queen's Edict on Allahabad-Kosam pillar — mentions donations of Queen Karuvaki, mother of Tivara (Ashoka's only named son in inscriptions).

Cave Inscriptions

• Barabar Hill caves (Bihar) — Lomas Rishi cave and 3 others donated by Ashoka to the Ajivika sect (not Buddhists!). Earliest rock-cut caves in India; have the famous mirror-finish "Mauryan polish".
• Nagarjuni Hill caves — donated by Dasharatha (Ashoka's grandson) to Ajivikas.

Other Inscriptions (Post-Mauryan, naming Mauryas)

• Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (AD 150) — earliest inscription to mention Chandragupta Maurya by name and the construction of Sudarshana lake by Pushyagupta during his reign.
• Sohgaura copper plate (Gorakhpur) and Mahasthan inscription (Bangladesh) — likely Mauryan famine relief orders; among the few non-Ashokan Mauryan inscriptions.

6.2 Literary Sources

A. Indian Literary Sources

Brahmanical Literature

• Puranas (Vishnu, Vayu, Matsya, Bhagavata) — provide dynastic lists and chronology of Mauryan rulers (and the only sources naming all the post-Ashoka Mauryan kings up to Brihadratha).
• Patanjali's Mahabhashya — refers to Mauryas; mentions the manufacture of images by Mauryas for monetary gain.

Buddhist Literature

• Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Pali chronicles) — extensive account of Ashoka, Third Buddhist Council, Mahendra's mission to Sri Lanka.
• Divyavadana (Sanskrit Buddhist text) — contains Ashokavadana and Pamsupradanavadana, narrating Ashoka's life and conversion.
• Mahabodhivamsa — Sri Lankan; on the Bodhi-tree mission.
• Lalitavistara, Avadana-shataka — references to Ashoka.
• Tibetan tradition — Taranatha — names Bindusara as conqueror of "land between two seas".

Jaina Texts

• Parishishtaparvan (Hemachandra, 12th c. AD) — narrates Chandragupta's accession with Chanakya, his Jain conversion under Bhadrabahu, migration to Shravanabelagola, Sallekhana death.
• Kalpasutra (Bhadrabahu) and Brihatkalpa-sutra — references to Chandragupta and Samprati's patronage of Jainism.

Arthashastra (Kautilya)

• It is a theoretical/prescriptive work, not strictly a chronicle — it describes how a state should be run, not necessarily how the Mauryan state actually was.
• Contains the Saptanga theory (seven elements of state: Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durga, Kosha, Danda, Mitra) and the Mandala theory of foreign policy (concentric rings of friends and enemies).
• The four Upayas of statecraft: Sama (conciliation), Dana (gift), Bheda (dissension), Danda (force).
• Modern scholarship (Thomas Trautmann, Patrick Olivelle) considers the present text a compilation with later additions, but the core reflects Mauryan administrative thought.

Mudrarakshasa (Vishakhadatta)

• A Sanskrit political play in 7 acts written around 4th–5th century AD (Gupta period).
• Plot: how Chanakya wins over Rakshasa, the loyal minister of the Nandas, to the Mauryan side — a political thriller of intrigue, forgery and counter-plot.
• Provides corroborative evidence (though much later) of Chandragupta's overthrow of the Nandas and uses terms like "Vrishala" (low-born) for Chandragupta.

Other Indian Sources

• Banabhatta's Harshacharita (7th c. AD) — describes the killing of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga during a military review.
• Kathasaritsagara (Somadeva, 11th c. AD) — preserves the Chanakya legend.
• Rajatarangini (Kalhana, 12th c.) — mentions Ashoka's patronage of Buddhism in Kashmir, his foundation of Srinagar (Srinagari).

B. Foreign Literary Sources

Indica of Megasthenes

• Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nikator to Chandragupta's court (~302–298 BC). He resided at Pataliputra.
• His book Indica is lost in the original; we know it only through fragments quoted by later Greek/Roman writers — Strabo (Geography), Arrian (Indika), Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca), and Pliny the Elder (Natural History).
• Key descriptions: 7 endogamous classes; the city of Pataliputra (9 miles long, 1.5 miles wide, 64 gates, 570 towers, palisade with moat); the 6 committees of 5 administering Pataliputra; the 6 committees of 5 administering the army; royal court; absence of slavery (misinterpreted); famine never afflicting India (also inaccurate).
• Other Greek ambassadors who wrote on India — Deimachos (to Bindusara) and Dionysius (to Bindusara from Ptolemy II) — but their works are entirely lost.

Other Greek & Latin Writers

• Strabo (1st c. BC), Arrian (2nd c. AD), Plutarch (1st c. AD), Justin (epitome of Trogus, 3rd c. AD), Pliny the Elder — provide details on Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), Amitrochates (Bindusara), Alexander's invasion and Indo-Greek relations.
• The Sandrocottus = Chandragupta Maurya identification by Sir William Jones (1793) became the "sheet anchor of Indian chronology" — fixed Chandragupta's accession to c. 322–321 BC.

7. Causes of the Fall of the Mauryan Empire

Within 50 years of Ashoka's death (232 BC), the empire collapsed and the last Mauryan, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BC. RS Sharma in Ancient India lists five major causes:

7.1 Other Theories

• D.D. Kosambi: Stress on economic factors — currency debasement and overstretched economy.
• D.N. Jha: Combination of all factors with emphasis on regional autonomy and decentralisation.
• HC Raychaudhuri: Blamed Ashoka's pacifism for the empire's defenselessness — but this view is now considered overstated; Ashoka did NOT disband the army (he in fact warns rebellious forest tribes in MRE XIII).

7.2 End of the Empire — 185 BC

Current Affairs Connect — Mauryan Empire in News

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

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