Social Justice & Vulnerable Sections

Social inequalities — patterns, exclusion, technology divide · OBC, Children (POCSO/NCPCR), Elderly (SARA), Disabled (RPWD 2016), Transgender (NALSA/TG Act 2019) · Social Justice movements · SHG empowerment

📄 GS Paper 1🎯 Mains Focus⏱ 20 min read📅 Updated 2025

Section 1: Social Inequalities

Patterns of Social Inequality

Individual Differences: Ability, talent, effort — acceptable meritocratic differences
Generational Beliefs: Inherited beliefs about hierarchy that become self-fulfilling
Belief/Ideology: Religious justifications for hierarchy (Manusmriti's varna ideology)
Stereotypes: Fixed generalizations — caste stereotypes (Dalits "suited" for cleaning), gender stereotypes (women "suited" for domesticity)
Prejudices: Pre-judgement based on group membership; affects access to housing, employment, justice
Discrimination: Differential treatment based on identity — caste, gender, religion, disability

Social Exclusion

Amartya Sen: Social exclusion = being shut out from social, economic, political participation
Forms: Economic exclusion (no land/capital), political exclusion (no representation), social exclusion (untouchability, ghettoization)
India's structural exclusions: Caste-based, gender-based, disability-based
Current: Digital exclusion — 50% of India still without internet (TRAI 2024); rural-urban digital divide

Inequalities due to Technology

Affordability: Smartphone costs vs daily wage — poor cannot afford
Literate-illiterate gap: Digital literacy at 38% nationally; worse for women (28%), elderly (12%)
Rural-Urban gap: Urban 67% internet penetration vs rural 37% (TRAI 2024)
Language: 90% internet content in non-Indian languages
Government response: BharatNet, PM-WANI, Digital India, Common Service Centres (CSCs) — 5+ lakh CSCs

Distribution of Wealth

Oxfam India 2024: Top 1% own 40.1% of total wealth; bottom 50% own 3%
Gini coefficient: ~35 (moderate but high for an emerging economy)
Kuznets curve — development increases inequality before reducing it
Policy responses: Progressive taxation (wealth tax abolished 1986), MGNREGS, PM-KISAN, Ayushman Bharat

Personal Liberties and Fair Privilege Opportunities

Art. 19 — freedoms; Art. 21 — life & dignity; Art. 22 — protection against arrest
Equal opportunity vs equal outcome debate — India pursues both (Art. 16 equal opportunity + Art. 16(4) reservation for outcome)
Rawlsian justice: "Veil of ignorance" — design society not knowing your position; maximin principle — maximize the minimum position

Social Justice Movements

Dalit Panthers (1972, Maharashtra — inspired by Black Panthers)
Chipko Movement (1973 — women's environmental justice)
Self-Respect Movement (Periyar E.V. Ramasamy — Tamil Nadu)
Narmada Bachao Andolan (tribal/farmers' displacement rights)
LGBTQ+ rights movement → NALSA 2014, Navtej Singh Johar 2018
Anti-manual scavenging movement → PEMSR Act 1993, 2013 amendment
Current: Dalit Adivasi leadership in governance (President Droupadi Murmu); sub-classification judgment 2024

Fig 1: India's vulnerable sections — key populations, laws, and statistics at a glance

Section 2: Other Backward Classes (OBC)

Constitutionally defined "socially and educationally backward classes" (Art. 340)
First Backward Classes Commission — Kaka Kalelkar 1953 (report rejected)
Mandal Commission 1979 — 52% OBC population; recommended 27% reservation
Indra Sawhney 1992 — upheld 27% OBC reservation; creamy layer exclusion (currently Rs 8 lakh)
National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) — Art. 338B constitutional status (102nd Amendment 2018)
Central OBC list: 2633 castes/communities
Issues: No caste census since 1931 for OBC enumeration; Bihar Caste Survey 2023; demand for OBC sub-classification
OBC in politics: Lalu Prasad, Mulayam Singh, Modi — OBC leaders; SP/BSP/RJD politics

Sub-classification Judgment 2024: SC held that states can sub-classify SCs/OBCs for reservations to ensure most backward get benefit — overruling E.V. Chinnaiah 2004. Significant for social justice implementation.

Fig 2: Social inequality patterns — the discrimination-exclusion-poverty cycle and state intervention points

Section 3: Children

Key Issues

Child labor — CLPRA 1986, amended 2016 (14 years minimum for most work)
Child marriage — PCMA 2006; India has highest number of child brides (27% before 18 — NFHS-5)
Child abuse — POCSO Act 2012 (Protection of Children from Sexual Offences); NCRB: 1.87 lakh cases 2022
Malnutrition — POSHAN 2.0; under-5 stunting 35.5% (NFHS-5)
Child trafficking — ITPA 1956, BNSS 2023 provisions

Key Schemes

Mission Vatsalya (earlier Integrated Child Protection Scheme)
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP)
PM POSHAN (Mid-Day Meal) — 12 crore children
ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services)
NCPCR — National Commission for Protection of Child Rights

Current Developments

JJ Act 2015: Child in conflict with law — juvenile justice reform; Nirbhaya-inspired provisions for heinous offences
Supreme Court on child sexual abuse material 2024: Possession and viewing are offence under POCSO

Mains angle: POCSO implementation challenges — low conviction rates, victim re-traumatization, need for child-friendly courts. Courts designated under POCSO but infrastructure lacking.

Section 4: Senior Citizens / Elderly

Census 2011: 10.38 crore (8.6%); projected 340 million by 2050 (demographic ageing)
Issues: Abandonment (nuclear family), financial insecurity, health care costs, elder abuse
Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act 2007: Obligation on children to maintain; Tribunals; amendments 2019 (expanded to guardians, expanded definition)
National Policy for Senior Citizens 2011
Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY) — umbrella scheme
Senior Citizens Savings Scheme, PM Vaya Vandana Yojana
Current: WHO report on ageism 2021; India's ageing challenge — pension system gaps; old age homes insufficient

Demographic context: India's demographic dividend (large young population) is a window that will close. By 2050, elderly dependency ratio will challenge welfare systems — early pension reform and care infrastructure critical.

Section 5: Persons with Disabilities

RPWD Act 2016 (Rights of Persons with Disabilities)

Replaces PWD Act 1995; aligned with UN CRPD 2006.

Expanded from 7 to 21 categories of disabilities (added autism, intellectual disability, specific learning disability, mental illness, dwarfism, acid attack)
Rights-based approach (vs welfare approach of 1995)
4% reservation in government jobs (up from 3%), 5% in higher education
Establishment of National Commission for PwD (NCPD)
Model inclusive education policies

Key Features

Barrier-free environment obligation on establishments
Support for independent living (vs institutional care)
Legal capacity — no blanket guardianship; persons have right to make own decisions
Employment: Right to equal opportunity, reasonable accommodation

Data & Issues

2.68 crore disabled (Census 2011 — 2.21%); actual figures likely higher (WHO estimates 15%)
Accessibility infrastructure gaps, attitude barriers, invisible disabilities not recognized
Slow RPWD implementation; private sector non-compliance
Current: Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan); ADIP scheme

Fig 3: Comparative analysis of PWD Act 1995 vs RPWD Act 2016 — key distinctions for Mains

Section 6: Transgender Persons

NALSA v. Union of India 2014 (SC)

Third gender recognized as constitutional right
Self-identification of gender
Reservation as OBC for transgender persons (not implemented)
Right to dignity, non-discrimination

Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act 2019

Defines transgender person (self-perceived gender identity)
Certificate of identity — District Magistrate
Prohibition of discrimination (employment, education, housing)
National Council for Transgender Persons

Criticism of TG Act 2019

No reservation (NALSA directive not implemented)
No right to same-sex marriage
Self-identification diluted — certificate requirement from DM
No protection from family violence
Weaker penalties than POCSO/SC-ST Act

Current Developments

SC on same-sex marriage (Supriyo v. Union 2023): Declined to legalize, referred to Parliament; recognized LGBTQ+ right to dignified life
UP, other states — arrests under Section 377 (IPC) substitute laws
LGBTQ+ workplace inclusion — some corporates, no legal mandate yet

Key distinction: NALSA (2014) is judge-made law affirming rights; TG Act (2019) is Parliament-made law — but critics argue the Act walked back NALSA's progressive directions on self-identification and reservations.

Section 7: Social Development — Additional Aspects

Language & Learning Skills

National Education Policy 2020 — mother tongue instruction up to Class 5, multilingual education
Tribal languages: Eklavya Model Residential Schools, tribal language teachers
Language exclusion — scheduled language vs non-scheduled language speakers; 19,500+ mother tongues in India

Social Development Indicators

HDI 0.633 in 2023 — medium category (rank 134/193 — UNDP)
UNDP Gender Inequality Index — India rank 108/166 (2023)
MPI (Multidimensional Poverty Index) — 14.96% poor (NITI Aayog 2023)
Social Mobility Index — India 76/82 countries (WEF 2020)

Self Help Groups (SHGs) — Women Empowerment

NABARD SHG-Bank Linkage Programme launched 1992
67+ lakh SHGs; 7+ crore women members
DAY-NRLM (Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana — National Rural Livelihoods Mission) — scaling SHG movement
Dimensions of empowerment: Economic (micro-loans → income), Social (group voice), Political (Kudumbashree Kerala model), Psychological (self-efficacy)
Evidence: Low NPA rates on SHG loans; women-led businesses rising; Lakhpati Didi goal — 3 crore SHG women with Rs 1 lakh+ income
Limitations: Elite capture, geographical concentration (South India), sustainability post-government support

Previous Year Questions & Model Answers

MAINS

GS I 2015 10 Marks · Indian Society

"Discuss the importance of women's Self Help Groups (SHGs) in women empowerment in India."

Model Answer Structure

Introduction — Define SHG: 10-20 women from similar socio-economic background; regular savings; internal lending; collective decision-making. NABARD SHG-Bank Linkage Programme (1992) — formal credit channel.
Scale: 67+ lakh SHGs nationally; 7+ crore women; Rs 1.6 lakh crore credit outstanding.
Economic empowerment: Access to micro-credit without collateral; income generation (tailoring, food processing, artisanal goods); reduced dependence on moneylenders; Lakhpati Didi scheme — Rs 1 lakh+ annual income target for 3 crore women.
Social empowerment: Collective voice against domestic violence; reduced social isolation; negotiation within household; group solidarity — Kudumbashree (Kerala) mobilized 45 lakh women, reduced malnutrition, elder care.
Political empowerment: SHG graduates contesting Panchayat elections; increased political representation at grassroots; policy advocacy.
Psychological empowerment: Self-efficacy and confidence from financial decision-making; identity beyond family roles.
Evidence: NPA rates on SHG loans under 3% (better than commercial loans); NRLM impact studies show consumption increase, asset creation.
Limitations: Elite/dominant caste capture; concentration in southern states (Andhra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) vs weak presence in Bihar, UP, MP; sustainability doubts when government support withdrawn; literacy barriers in financial management.
Conclusion: SHGs demonstrate that social capital and economic empowerment mutually reinforce each other. DAY-NRLM scaling shows state can catalyze community-led development. Structural barriers (patriarchy, caste) still limit full potential.

GS I 2021 15 Marks · Indian Society

"Analyse the distinguishing features of the notion of Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016."

Model Answer Structure

Context: Replaces welfare-based PWD Act 1995; India ratified UN Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 2007 — obligated rights-based legislation. Significant paradigm shift: from "objects of charity" to "subjects of rights."
Expanded categories: 21 disabilities vs 7 — includes mental illness, autism spectrum, specific learning disability (dyslexia), dwarfism, acid attack survivors — recognition of invisible and acquired disabilities.
Rights-based approach: Disability = interaction between impairment and environmental barriers (social model); focus on removing barriers, not "curing" persons.
Legal capacity: No blanket guardianship; persons with disabilities retain right to make decisions; limited guardianship only with judicial oversight — aligned with Art. 21 dignity.
Reasonable accommodation: Employers must provide adjustments enabling PwD to work; failure is discrimination — first time private sector duty explicitly included.
Enhanced reservation: 4% in government jobs (up from 3%); 5% in higher education — correcting historic exclusion.
Barrier-free environment: Public buildings, transport, information — 5-year timeline for accessibility compliance (Accessible India Campaign).
National Commission for Persons with Disabilities: Independent monitoring, grievance redressal.
Challenges: Implementation gaps — most public infrastructure still inaccessible; private sector non-compliance; invisible disabilities not understood by employers; states slow to frame rules; social attitudes remain biggest barrier.
Conclusion: RPWD 2016 is transformative legislation with rights-based architecture; success depends on enforcement, attitudinal change, and resource allocation for accessibility infrastructure.

GS I 2023 15 Marks · Indian Society

"Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian society."

Model Answer Structure

Data: NCRB 2022 — 1.70 lakh suicides; women constitute 30% of total; young women (15-29) highest proportion among female suicides; housewives single largest category; states: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh highest.
Educational pressure: First-generation learners with high parental expectations; academic failure stigma; exam pressure (NEET, JEE) — Kota suicide cluster; girls expected to excel yet also conform to traditional roles.
Failed/forbidden relationships: Love marriages opposed by families; honor-based rejection and violence; forced marriage; no agency in life partner choice — particularly in conservative social contexts.
Domestic violence: NFHS-5: 30% women experienced spousal violence; IPC 304B — dowry deaths; Section 498A harassment; newly married women most vulnerable — in-law pressure, dowry demands.
Economic stress: Unpaid domestic labor, financial dependence; no inheritance rights in practice; economic abuse within marriage.
Mental health stigma: Help-seeking seen as weakness; no access to counseling; NIMHANS study: only 1 in 10 with mental disorder receives treatment; rural areas virtually no services.
Social media: Cyberbullying targeting young women disproportionately; body image pressure; relationship humiliation (morphed images); social comparison.
Structural factors: Lack of agency in career and marriage decisions; mobility restrictions; gender socialization — repression of distress expression; no institutional support systems at critical transition points.
Government response: iCall helpline, Vandrevala Foundation, NIMHANS; Mental Healthcare Act 2017 — decriminalized suicide attempt; KIRAN helpline (1800-599-0019).
Way forward: Early counseling in schools/colleges; police sensitization on dowry/DV; de-stigmatizing mental health; women's economic independence; strong enforcement of PCMA, DV Act; community-based mental health workers.
Conclusion: Young women's suicides reflect intersection of patriarchy, economic dependence, educational pressure, and mental health neglect. Social transformation — not just helplines — is the long-term solution.