India on Eve of Independence (1939–1947): WWII to Partition

1. WWII Outbreak & Congress Resignation 1939

On 3 September 1939 Viceroy Lord Linlithgow unilaterally declared India a belligerent in the Second World War without consulting Indian leaders or the Central Legislative Assembly. Congress was outraged — not by opposition to fighting fascism, but by the imperial arrogance of dragging 400 million Indians into war by viceregal fiat.

Congress Demand & Linlithgow's Refusal

The Congress Working Committee met at Wardha (14 September 1939) under Gandhi and asked the British two questions: (i) what are your war aims? (ii) will India be free after the war? Linlithgow's reply of 17 October 1939 was a stonewall — vague promises of "Dominion Status" some day, modification of the 1935 Act after the war, and a consultative committee. No firm commitment.

Resignation of Congress Ministries

Congress responded by ordering all eight provincial ministries to resign between 27 October and 15 November 1939. The Muslim League under Jinnah celebrated this as "Day of Deliverance" on 22 December 1939 — claiming that Congress rule had been "tyranny" for Muslims. This date marked Jinnah's decisive turn toward demanding a separate Muslim state.

Lahore Resolution 23 March 1940

At the Muslim League's Lahore session (22–24 March 1940) Jinnah presided and Bengal's A.K. Fazlul Huq moved the "Pakistan Resolution" (though the word Pakistan was not used in the text). It demanded that Muslim-majority areas in north-west and east India be grouped into "Independent States" with autonomous and sovereign units. This is the formal birth-date of the Pakistan demand.

2. August Offer 1940 & Individual Satyagraha

August Offer 8 August 1940

With France fallen and Britain facing Nazi invasion, Linlithgow tried to woo Indian opinion through the August Offer (8 August 1940):

• Dominion Status as the objective of British policy (first explicit commitment).
• Expansion of Viceroy's Executive Council to include more Indians.
• Setting up a War Advisory Council.
• Post-war body to frame the new constitution with Indians.
• Most controversially: no future constitution would be adopted without consent of minorities — effectively a Muslim League veto.

Congress rejected the Offer. The League gave a half-welcome but pocketed the veto clause. Gandhi was furious at the minority-veto provision because it handed Jinnah a permanent block on Indian unity.

Individual Satyagraha October 1940

Gandhi designed the Individual Satyagraha as a controlled protest — neither mass agitation (which might embarrass Britain during the war) nor silence (which would acquiesce). Selected individuals would publicly make anti-war speeches and court arrest one at a time. The aim was to register a moral protest while not crippling the war effort.

Vinoba Bhave was chosen as the first satyagrahi (17 October 1940) at Paunar. Jawaharlal Nehru was the second. By May 1941 over 25,000 satyagrahis had been arrested. The movement was suspended in December 1941 when leaders were released ahead of the Cripps Mission.

3. Cripps Mission March 1942

Why Britain Sent Cripps

By March 1942 the war had gone catastrophically badly for Britain in Asia: Singapore fell 15 February 1942, Rangoon fell 8 March 1942, and Japanese forces were on India's eastern border. Roosevelt, Chiang Kai-shek and the British Labour Party all pressured Churchill to make a meaningful offer to India to secure cooperation in the war.

Churchill — a lifelong opponent of Indian independence — reluctantly sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a Labour minister, to Delhi. Cripps arrived 22 March 1942.

Cripps Proposals

• Dominion Status for India after the war (with the right to secede from the Commonwealth).
• Constituent Assembly to frame the constitution, elected by provincial legislatures plus princely nominees.
• Any province unwilling to accept the constitution could opt out and form a separate union — this was the seed of partition.
• British to retain control of defence during the war.
• Treaty between Britain and the new Indian Union to safeguard minorities.

Failure of the Mission

Congress rejected the proposals on 11 April 1942. Reasons:

• Dominion Status (not full independence) — and only after the war.
• Defence remaining with the British during war — Nehru wanted an immediate national government with defence portfolio.
• Provincial opt-out clause was a "right to secede" that would Balkanise India.
• No transfer of real power immediately.

The Muslim League also rejected the Plan because it did not concede Pakistan in clear terms. Gandhi famously called the Cripps Offer a "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank" (some versions add "failing bank" — the original Cripps memoir uses "post-dated cheque").

4. Quit India Movement August 1942

Build-Up & Resolution

The Congress Working Committee at Wardha (14 July 1942) adopted Gandhi's draft demanding immediate British withdrawal. The full AICC met at Gowalia Tank Maidan (now August Kranti Maidan), Bombay on 7–8 August 1942 and passed the historic "Quit India Resolution" on the night of 8 August 1942.

Gandhi gave his famous "Do or Die" (Karenge ya Marenge) speech. The plan was a mass non-violent struggle — though Gandhi knew, given the inevitable arrests, that the people would have to lead themselves.

Operation Zero Hour 9 August 1942

The British struck pre-emptively in the early hours of 9 August 1942 under "Operation Zero Hour" — arresting Gandhi (sent to Aga Khan Palace, Pune), Nehru, Patel, Azad, Kripalani and virtually the entire Congress leadership before they could issue any instructions. The Congress was declared illegal.

Three Phases of the Movement

Repression

The British response was the harshest since 1857:

• Over 1,00,000 arrests by end of 1942.
• Around 10,000 killed in police and military firings (Linlithgow's own estimate ~1,028; nationalist estimates much higher).
• Whippings, collective fines, machine-gunning from airplanes (Bhagalpur, Tamluk).
• Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the Congress flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan on 9 August 1942 — became the heroine of the movement.

Quit India Strongholds

The movement was strongest in:

• Ballia (UP) — Chittu Pandey set up parallel government for one week (Aug 1942).
• Tamluk (Midnapore, Bengal) — Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar functioned 17 December 1942 to 8 August 1944 under Satish Chandra Samanta and Sushil Dhara.
• Satara (Maharashtra) — Prati Sarkar of Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil from 1943 to 1945, the longest-lasting parallel government.
• Talcher (Odisha), Bhagalpur, Purnea (Bihar).

5. Underground Activity & Parallel Governments

Underground Network

With the open leadership in jail, an underground network kept the movement alive. The key figures:

Congress Radio

Usha Mehta, a 22-year-old, ran the Congress Radio from secret locations in Bombay (transmitting from 27 August 1942) broadcasting nationalist news against British censorship. She was arrested on 12 November 1942 after three months of broadcasts and sentenced to four years' imprisonment.

Parallel Governments — Detail

Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar (Midnapore): Functioned from 17 December 1942 to 8 August 1944. Set up departments of education, finance, health and home guards (Vidyut Vahini). Provided cyclone relief in October 1942 when the British administration collapsed. Levied taxes, ran courts, distributed paddy. Dissolved voluntarily on Gandhi's orders after the Movement was called off.

Satara Prati Sarkar: Set up by Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil in mid-1943 covering 600+ villages. Maintained Nyaydan Mandals (people's courts), Lok Sevak Sangh, prohibition of liquor, marriage reforms, anti-money-lender measures. Lasted over two years — the most enduring parallel government of the era.

Ballia (UP): Chittu Pandey freed all political prisoners from Ballia jail and ran a parallel administration for about a week before British troops re-occupied the town.

6. Subhas Bose & the Indian National Army

Bose's Escape & European Phase

Subhas Chandra Bose, under house arrest in Calcutta, made his famous escape on the night of 16–17 January 1941 — disguised as Maulvi Ziauddin, he travelled via Peshawar, Kabul, Moscow to Berlin (28 March 1941). In Germany he met Hitler (29 May 1942), set up the Free India Centre and raised the Indian Legion (Azad Hind Fauj) from Indian POWs captured in North Africa.

Disillusioned with German priorities, Bose travelled by U-boat (German U-180 and Japanese I-29) from Kiel to Sumatra (February–May 1943) — a 90-day submarine journey — reaching Tokyo on 13 June 1943.

INA Origins — Rash Behari Bose & Mohan Singh

The INA had actually been founded earlier by Indian POWs captured by Japan after the fall of Singapore (15 February 1942). Captain Mohan Singh raised the first INA in Singapore in September 1942, supported by Rash Behari Bose (the veteran revolutionary who had been in exile in Japan since 1915). Internal disputes between Mohan Singh and the Japanese led to the first INA's dissolution in December 1942.

Rash Behari Bose handed over leadership to Subhas Bose at the Greater East Asia Conference, Tokyo (4 July 1943).

Azad Hind Government 21 October 1943

In Singapore on 21 October 1943 Bose proclaimed the Provisional Government of Free India (Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind). It was recognised by nine Axis powers — Japan, Germany, Italy, Croatia, Manchukuo, Wang Jingwei's China, Thailand, Burma and the Philippines.

The Andaman & Nicobar Islands were transferred to the Provisional Government by Japan on 29 December 1943 and Bose renamed them Shaheed & Swaraj Islands.

INA Campaign — Imphal & Kohima

The INA had three brigades: Gandhi Brigade, Azad Brigade and Nehru Brigade. The women's regiment was the Rani Jhansi Regiment under Captain Lakshmi Sahgal.

INA crossed the Indo-Burma border on 18 March 1944. On 14 April 1944 Col. Shaukat Malik hoisted the INA tricolour at Moirang (Manipur) — the first Indian soil "liberated." The combined Japanese-INA assault was halted at the Battle of Imphal (March–July 1944) and Battle of Kohima (April–June 1944), which historians now rank among the most decisive battles of the war. Monsoon, Allied air power and exhausted supply lines forced retreat.

Bose's Death

After Japan's surrender, Bose was killed in an air crash at Taipei (Taihoku) airport on 18 August 1945. The Mukherjee Commission (1999–2005) reopened the question; the Shah Nawaz (1956) and Khosla (1970–74) Commissions had earlier accepted the air-crash theory.

7. C.R. Formula & Desai-Liaquat Pact 1944–45

C.R. Formula (Rajagopalachari Formula) July 1944

By 1944 Gandhi was out of jail (released 6 May 1944 on health grounds). To break the Congress-League deadlock, C. Rajagopalachari proposed a formula in March 1944 which Gandhi endorsed in July 1944:

• League to endorse Congress demand for independence.
• League to cooperate in interim government during the war.
• After war, a commission would demarcate Muslim-majority districts in the NW and NE.
• Plebiscite of all adult inhabitants in those districts to decide whether to form a separate state.
• If separation took place, agreements on defence, communications and commerce.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks were held at Jinnah's Bombay residence from 9 to 27 September 1944 — 18 meetings, but no agreement. Jinnah rejected the formula because it confined Pakistan to Muslim-majority districts (excluding Hindu-majority parts of Punjab and Bengal) and the plebiscite would include non-Muslims.

Desai-Liaquat Pact January 1945

Behind-the-scenes talks between Congress leader Bhulabhai Desai and League leader Liaquat Ali Khan in January 1945 produced an outline:

• Equal representation of Congress and League nominees in the central interim government.
• Representation for minorities (especially Scheduled Castes).
• Joint formation of an interim government at the centre.

The Desai-Liaquat Pact was never formally endorsed by either party leadership but it foreshadowed the parity principle that would dominate the Wavell Plan and the Interim Government of 1946. Jinnah later disowned it.

8. Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference 1945

Background

Linlithgow was replaced by Field Marshal Lord Wavell as Viceroy on 1 October 1943. With the war turning decisively in the Allies' favour by 1944 and the Labour Party (sympathetic to Indian independence) rising in Britain, Wavell pushed for a fresh political initiative.

Wavell Plan 14 June 1945

Wavell announced the plan on 14 June 1945 from Delhi:

• Reconstitution of the Viceroy's Executive Council — all members except the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief to be Indians.
• Parity between caste Hindus and Muslims in the new Council.
• External Affairs portfolio (so far held by the Viceroy) to be transferred to an Indian member.
• Conditional on Congress and League agreement on nominees.

Shimla Conference 25 June – 14 July 1945

Wavell convened the Shimla Conference at the Viceregal Lodge from 25 June to 14 July 1945. Twenty-one leaders attended including Azad (Congress President), Gandhi (in attendance though not a delegate), Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan, Tara Singh, Khizr Hyat Khan (Punjab Unionist Premier).

The Conference broke down on the Muslim question. Jinnah insisted that all Muslim members of the new Council must be Muslim League nominees — he claimed the League was the "sole spokesman" of Indian Muslims. Congress refused: it had Muslim members (Azad) and the Punjab Unionists had their own Muslim leaders. Wavell sided with Jinnah's veto on 14 July 1945 and declared the talks failed.

Labour Victory & Elections Announced

The Labour Party under Clement Attlee won the British general election on 26 July 1945, displacing Churchill. The new government was committed to Indian independence. Wavell flew to London (August 1945) and on 19 September 1945 announced that Central and Provincial elections in India would be held in winter 1945–46 and a constitution-making body would follow.

9. INA Trials & Public Mood 1945–46

The Trials at Red Fort

After Japan's surrender (15 August 1945), the British captured around 23,000 INA personnel. The government decided to court-martial about 600 of them. The first and most famous trial began at the historic Red Fort, Delhi on 5 November 1945. Three officers were chosen for symbolic effect:

• Col. Prem Kumar Sahgal (Hindu)
• Col. Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon (Sikh)
• Maj. Gen. Shah Nawaz Khan (Muslim)

The charge was waging war against the King-Emperor.

Congress Defence Committee

Congress set up a high-powered defence committee on 20 August 1945: Bhulabhai Desai (lead counsel), Jawaharlal Nehru (returning to courts after 25 years), Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju, Asaf Ali. The defence argued that the INA soldiers were soldiers of a recognised provisional government and entitled to combatant status, not traitors.

Public Mood

The trials united India as nothing had since 1857. INA Relief Funds were oversubscribed. Slogans of "Lal Quile se aayi awaz, Sahgal, Dhillon, Shah Nawaz!" rang through cities. Posters showed the three officers as the new triumvirate. Communal differences temporarily evaporated — a Hindu, a Sikh and a Muslim being tried together for fighting British rule.

Verdict & Commutation

On 3 January 1946 the court-martial found all three guilty and sentenced them to deportation for life with forfeiture of pay. Faced with overwhelming public anger and protests across India (especially the Calcutta riots of November 1945 and student strikes), Commander-in-Chief Claude Auchinleck remitted the sentences on 4 January 1946. All three walked free.

10. RIN Mutiny February 1946

The Mutiny Erupts

On 18 February 1946 ratings of the HMIS Talwar at Bombay went on strike protesting bad food, racial discrimination by British officers, low pay, slow demobilisation, and inspired by the INA trials. The leader was Signalman M.S. Khan. By 19 February the mutiny had spread to 78 ships and 20 shore establishments involving about 20,000 ratings across Bombay, Karachi, Calcutta, Madras, Vizag and Cochin.

Naval Central Strike Committee

The ratings formed a Naval Central Strike Committee with M.S. Khan as President and Madan Singh as Vice-President. They hoisted Congress, League and Communist flags together on the masts — a powerful symbol of unity. Demands included release of INA prisoners, withdrawal of Indian troops from Indonesia, and acceptance of strike committee's terms.

Civilian Solidarity

On 22 February 1946 Bombay city went on a complete hartal. Workers from textile mills came out, students joined, and there was firing by British troops and police. Over 200 civilians were killed in Bombay in two days. There were sympathy strikes in Calcutta and Karachi.

Surrender & Political Aftermath

Sardar Patel for the Congress and Jinnah for the League both urged the ratings to surrender, promising no victimisation. The Strike Committee surrendered on 23 February 1946. Promises of no victimisation were broken — most were dismissed from service.

Even Congress and League's effort to defuse the mutiny showed how shaken the political class was by armed-forces revolt. The British in London now concluded that the army-navy could no longer be trusted to hold India down. Attlee himself later (1956) cited INA and the resulting military unrest as the decisive factor in the decision to leave India.

11. Cabinet Mission Plan May 1946

Composition & Arrival

British PM Attlee announced the Cabinet Mission to the House of Commons on 19 February 1946. Three Cabinet ministers were sent:

• Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India) — Chairman
• Sir Stafford Cripps (President, Board of Trade — back again after 1942)
• A.V. Alexander (First Lord of the Admiralty)

They arrived in Delhi on 24 March 1946 and held over 472 interviews with Indian leaders before announcing the Plan on 16 May 1946.

Cabinet Mission Plan 16 May 1946

Crucially, the Plan rejected the demand for a separate Pakistan as impracticable but proposed a three-tier federal structure to satisfy League concerns:

• Union of India at the centre — would control only Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications (the "three subjects"). All residuary powers would be with provinces.
• Groups of Provinces — three groups:
  • Group A: Hindu-majority provinces — Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa.
  • Group B: Muslim-majority NW — Punjab, NWFP, Sindh, Baluchistan.
  • Group C: Muslim-majority NE — Bengal and Assam.
• Provinces — could decide subjects to delegate to their group.
• Provinces could opt out of groups after the first general elections under the new constitution.
• Constituent Assembly — 389 members (292 from British India elected by provincial assemblies + 4 from Chief Commissioners' provinces + 93 from princely states), one seat per million population.
• Interim Government to be formed pending the new constitution.

Response

Muslim League accepted the Plan on 6 June 1946 — Jinnah saw the compulsory Grouping as a "Pakistan within India" since Groups B+C would have effective autonomy.

Congress accepted the Plan in principle on 24 June 1946 but with reservations — particularly opposing the compulsory Grouping of provinces. Nehru held a press conference at Bombay on 10 July 1946 declaring that the Constituent Assembly would be sovereign and could modify the Plan, including the Grouping. This statement enraged Jinnah.

Cabinet Mission Plan on Grouping — The Fatal Ambiguity

The Plan said provinces would meet in Groups to frame group constitutions. Was the Grouping compulsory or optional? The British interpretation (and League's) was that Grouping was compulsory. Congress (especially Nehru) interpreted it as optional. This ambiguity destroyed the Plan.

On 29 July 1946 the League Council met at Bombay, withdrew its acceptance, and announced "Direct Action Day" for 16 August 1946.

12. Direct Action Day & Communal Riots

Great Calcutta Killing 16–19 August 1946

Jinnah declared 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day — to "achieve Pakistan" through mass action. In most of India it passed as a hartal, but in Calcutta — where the Muslim League's H.S. Suhrawardy was Premier — it triggered the worst communal violence in modern Indian history till that point.

The League called a public holiday in Bengal (the only province where it had a ministry). Suhrawardy himself addressed the crowd at the Octerlony Monument. Within hours, organised attacks began. For four days (16–19 August 1946) Calcutta burned. Official British estimate: 4,000 killed, 11,000 injured, 1,00,000 displaced. Unofficial estimates are higher.

Noakhali Riots October 1946

The violence spread to Noakhali district (East Bengal) from 10 October 1946 — Muslim-majority villages attacked Hindu minorities. Estimates of dead: 200–500. Forced conversions, abductions of women, destruction of temples. Gandhi arrived at Noakhali on 7 November 1946 and undertook a barefoot peace march for four months through 47 villages.

Bihar Riots October–November 1946

In retaliation for Noakhali, riots broke out in Bihar from 24 October 1946 — Hindu mobs attacked Muslims. Estimates: 7,000 to 10,000 killed. Nehru and Patel rushed to Bihar; Nehru threatened to bomb the rioters. By early December the riots subsided.

Garhmukteshwar & Punjab

The cycle continued — Garhmukteshwar fair (UP) November 1946: Muslims attacked, ~1,000 killed. Punjab simmered through the winter and exploded fully after March 1947.

13. Interim Government September 1946

Formation

Wavell pushed ahead with the Interim Government despite League withdrawal. Jawaharlal Nehru was invited to form the government and sworn in as Vice-President of the Viceroy's Executive Council (de facto Prime Minister) on 2 September 1946. The first Cabinet had 12 members — 6 Congress, 3 Muslims (Asaf Ali among them), 1 Sikh, 1 Indian Christian, 1 Parsi.

League Joins 26 October 1946

Faced with the prospect of being shut out, Jinnah agreed on 15 October 1946 to join the Interim Government. The League nominees joined on 26 October 1946. The 5 League members were:

• Liaquat Ali Khan — Finance
• I.I. Chundrigar — Commerce
• Abdur Rab Nishtar — Posts & Air
• Ghazanfar Ali Khan — Health
• Jogendra Nath Mandal (a Dalit, League's representative for Scheduled Castes) — Law

"Government at War with Itself"

The Interim Government became a battlefield. Liaquat Ali Khan's Budget of February 1947 — "Poor Man's Budget" — imposed harsh taxes on the business class which was mostly Hindu (capital gains tax, increased income tax on incomes above Rs 1 lakh). Patel called it a "calculated attempt to destroy Indian business." The League refused to attend the Constituent Assembly's first session. Files were duplicated, intelligence withheld, decisions sabotaged.

By early 1947 even Nehru and Patel had concluded that cooperation with the League was impossible. This was the moment when the Congress leadership privately accepted that Partition was preferable to a paralysed centre.

14. Constituent Assembly December 1946

Composition & First Sitting

Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946 by provincial assemblies under the Cabinet Mission scheme. Total 389 seats. Congress won 208, League 73, others 15, princely states 93 (to be filled later).

The Constituent Assembly held its first sitting on 9 December 1946 in the Constitution Hall (now Central Hall of Parliament), New Delhi. The Muslim League boycotted. Dr Sachchidananda Sinha was elected provisional Chairman (oldest member, French tradition). Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected permanent Chairman on 11 December 1946.

Objectives Resolution 13 December 1946

Nehru moved the Objectives Resolution on 13 December 1946 — adopted unanimously on 22 January 1947. It declared India a "Sovereign Democratic Republic" committed to justice, liberty, equality, fraternity. It became the basis of the Preamble to the Constitution.

Drafting Committee 29 August 1947

The Drafting Committee was set up on 29 August 1947 with Dr B.R. Ambedkar as Chairman and 6 other members. The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950. (Detailed coverage in Polity Topic 01.)

15. Attlee Statement & Mountbatten Arrival

Attlee's Statement 20 February 1947

With the Interim Government paralysed and communal violence spreading, PM Attlee made a historic statement in the House of Commons on 20 February 1947:

• British would transfer power to "responsible Indian hands" by 30 June 1948 at the latest.
• If a constitution were not framed by then, the British would decide how to transfer power — to the Central Government, or to "existing Provincial Governments, or in such other way as may seem most reasonable."
• Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell as Viceroy.

The "or to existing Provincial Governments" clause was the crucial threat — it implied that the British could leave power with the provinces rather than waiting for an all-India settlement. This was meant to push the League to compromise but instead pushed Congress to accept Partition (since a divided central handover was now a real possibility).

Mountbatten Sworn In 24 March 1947

Lord Louis Mountbatten — Supreme Allied Commander, South-East Asia during the war, cousin of King George VI — was sworn in as the last Viceroy on 24 March 1947. He brought with him a clear mandate from Attlee: settle the matter quickly, and if necessary by Partition. His personal team included his Press Secretary Alan Campbell-Johnson and the indispensable V.P. Menon (Reforms Commissioner).

Mountbatten's Diagnosis

Within weeks of arrival Mountbatten concluded that:

• Jinnah was implacable; no united-India formula could secure his agreement.
• Congress had now privately accepted partition as the price of a workable centre.
• The communal situation was deteriorating fast; every month of delay meant more killings.
• The 1948 deadline was unsafe — power had to be transferred sooner.

His Reforms Commissioner V.P. Menon presented a partition plan (refined from a draft Patel had earlier discussed). This became the basis of the 3 June Plan.

16. Mountbatten Plan 3 June 1947

The Plan Announced

On 3 June 1947 Mountbatten broadcast the Plan from All India Radio Delhi. Nehru, Jinnah and Baldev Singh (Sikh leader) followed with their own broadcasts accepting it. Key provisions:

• Partition of India into two Dominions: India and Pakistan.
• Punjab and Bengal would each have their provincial assembly split into two parts (Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority districts), each part voting separately on partition. If either voted for partition, the province would be divided.
• Sindh assembly to decide its own fate.
• NWFP and Sylhet (Assam) would hold referendums.
• Baluchistan — decision by Shahi Jirga and Quetta Municipality.
• Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of divided Punjab and Bengal.
• Princely States — paramountcy would lapse; they could accede to either dominion or remain independent (later modified — see Section 19).
• Constituent Assemblies — separate for India and Pakistan.
• Date of transfer of power advanced from 30 June 1948 to 15 August 1947 — Mountbatten's own decision (later he said the date had no special significance — he chose it on the spur because it was the second anniversary of Japan's surrender).

Acceptance

The Congress AICC accepted the Plan on 14–15 June 1947 at Delhi (157 in favour, 29 against, 32 abstaining). The League Council accepted on 10 June 1947. The Sikh Panthic Pratinidhi Board accepted with reservations.

Provincial Votes & Referendums

• Punjab Assembly (23 June 1947): West Punjab voted 91:77 for Pakistan; East Punjab voted 50:22 against — Punjab to be partitioned.
• Bengal Assembly (20 June 1947): West Bengal voted 58:21 against Pakistan; East Bengal voted 106:35 for — Bengal to be partitioned.
• Sindh Assembly (26 June 1947): Voted 33:20 to join Pakistan.
• NWFP Referendum (6–17 July 1947): Voted for Pakistan; Khudai Khidmatgars under Ghaffar Khan boycotted. Ghaffar Khan's famous cry — "you have thrown us to the wolves."
• Sylhet Referendum (6–7 July 1947): Voted to join East Pakistan.
• Baluchistan (29 June 1947): Shahi Jirga voted to join Pakistan.

17. Indian Independence Act 18 July 1947

Passage

The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, 1947 in record time. Introduced 4 July 1947, passed Commons 15 July, passed Lords 16 July, received Royal Assent on 18 July 1947. The Act (10 & 11 Geo VI c.30) had only 20 sections.

Key Provisions

• Two independent Dominions of India and Pakistan created with effect from 15 August 1947.
• Both Dominions to have full Dominion Status within the Commonwealth and right to secede.
• Constituent Assemblies of each Dominion to draft constitutions and meanwhile to function as Legislatures.
• Each Dominion to have a Governor-General appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the Dominion cabinet.
• British paramountcy over princely states ended on 15 August 1947.
• The Government of India Act 1935 to govern both Dominions till new constitutions were framed (with modifications).
• Title "Emperor of India" dropped from the British monarch.
• Office of Secretary of State for India abolished.
• Division of armed forces, finances, public services between the two Dominions.

Governors-General

Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of independent India (15 August 1947). Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan (Jinnah had refused Mountbatten's offer of common Governor-Generalship for both Dominions, claiming the role himself).

18. Partition & Radcliffe Line

Boundary Commissions

Two Boundary Commissions were set up — one for Punjab, one for Bengal — each with two Congress and two League nominees. Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British barrister who had never been to India before, was appointed Chairman of both Commissions on 30 June 1947. He arrived in India on 8 July 1947.

The Award

Radcliffe had just five weeks to draw lines through Punjab and Bengal that would affect 88 million people. He worked from out-of-date census data (1941), no on-the-ground surveys, and relied on the Indian members for local geography (who unsurprisingly disagreed). The Radcliffe Award was completed on 12 August 1947 and submitted to Mountbatten on 13 August 1947.

Mountbatten deliberately delayed announcement until 17 August 1947 — two days after Independence — so that whichever side felt aggrieved would not disturb the Independence Day ceremonies. Both Congress and League leaders denounced parts of the Award; Radcliffe destroyed his working papers and refused his £3,000 fee.

The Human Catastrophe

Partition triggered one of the largest forced migrations in human history:

• 14–18 million people crossed the new borders in the months around August 1947.
• Deaths: estimates range from 2,00,000 to 20,00,000 (Punjab alone accounted for the bulk).
• Women victims: estimates of 75,000 abducted and assaulted on both sides.
• Massive refugee camps at Wagah, Amritsar, Delhi, Lahore, Karachi.
• The Punjab Boundary Force (50,000 troops under Major-General Rees) proved hopelessly inadequate.

Punjab vs Bengal — Different Patterns

Punjab saw two-way mass exchange of population, killings, and the near-total disappearance of religious minorities from both East and West Punjab. Bengal Partition was — initially — less violent (largely because Gandhi was personally present in Calcutta from 9 August 1947 and his fast from 31 August broke the rioting). However, Bengal would see continuous trickle-migration and further bursts of violence in 1950 and 1964.

19. Integration of Princely States

The Problem

On 15 August 1947 there were 565 princely states covering about 40% of the territory and 23% of the population of British India. With paramountcy lapsing, each was technically free to join India, Pakistan, or remain independent. Most were geographically inside India. The architects of integration were Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Home Minister and Minister of States) and V.P. Menon (Secretary, States Department).

The Instrument of Accession

The Instrument of Accession drafted by V.P. Menon was a brilliant minimalist document — princes ceded only three subjects (defence, foreign affairs, communications) and retained internal autonomy. By 15 August 1947 all states except three had signed.

The Three Holdouts

Junagadh: Hindu-majority state in Kathiawar with Muslim ruler. Nawab Mahabat Khan acceded to Pakistan on 15 August 1947 despite no land connection. Patel sent Indian troops; a plebiscite was held on 20 February 1948 — 99% voted for India. Junagadh integrated.

Hyderabad: The largest princely state, Muslim ruler (Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan) over a Hindu-majority population. The Nizam wanted independence and was supported by the militant Razakars under Qasim Razvi. After a Standstill Agreement (29 November 1947) broke down, India launched Operation Polo (Police Action) on 13 September 1948 — five days of action, Hyderabad surrendered 17 September 1948. The Nizam continued as Rajpramukh until 1956.

Jammu & Kashmir: Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh over Muslim-majority population. Initially sought independence and signed Standstill Agreement with Pakistan on 15 August 1947. On 22 October 1947 Pakistani tribal raiders (Pashtun lashkars with Pakistan army support) invaded Kashmir, sacked Baramulla, and threatened Srinagar. Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947; Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar on 27 October 1947. The First Indo-Pak War (1947–48) ended with a UN-brokered ceasefire on 1 January 1949 — Pakistan retained "Azad Kashmir" and Gilgit-Baltistan; India retained the Valley, Jammu and Ladakh.

Process of Integration

Through 1947–49, Patel and Menon used a combination of:

• Privy Purses — annual payments to rulers (abolished 1971 by 26th Amendment).
• Personal titles retained.
• Mergers of small states into Union of India or grouped into new units like Saurashtra Union, Rajasthan Union, PEPSU, Madhya Bharat, Travancore-Cochin.
• Large states became Part-B States in the original Constitution (1950).

By 26 January 1950 all but a few enclaves had been integrated. The Portuguese-held Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated by Operation Vijay (17–19 December 1961); the French had peacefully transferred Puducherry in 1954 (de facto), 1962 (de jure).

20. Independence Day & Continuity

15 August 1947

On the midnight of 14–15 August 1947 the Constituent Assembly met in the Central Hall, New Delhi. Nehru delivered his "Tryst with Destiny" speech: "Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge..."

Dr Rajendra Prasad (Constituent Assembly President) administered the oath of office. Mountbatten was sworn in as the first Governor-General of independent India on the morning of 15 August 1947. Nehru was sworn in as the first Prime Minister; Patel as Deputy PM and Home Minister; Maulana Azad as Education Minister; Dr Ambedkar as Law Minister; Dr Rajendra Prasad as Food & Agriculture; Shyama Prasad Mookerjee as Industry & Supply; John Mathai as Railways; R.K. Shanmukham Chetty as Finance.

Pakistan 14 August 1947

Pakistan's Independence is celebrated on 14 August 1947 (Mountbatten flew to Karachi on 13 August to inaugurate the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on 14 August, then returned to Delhi for India's transfer on 15 August). Jinnah took oath as Governor-General; Liaquat Ali Khan as Prime Minister.

What India Inherited

The Republic that came into being in 1947–50 inherited:

• A unified administrative structure built on the ICS / IAS framework.
• An English-educated political and bureaucratic elite.
• A constitution drafted by the Constituent Assembly (adopted 26 November 1949).
• A democratic, secular, federal republic — a remarkable choice given the trauma of Partition.
• Unresolved problems: Kashmir dispute, Indo-Pak hostility, refugee rehabilitation, economic backwardness, illiteracy, communal scars, princely-state mergers.

Continuity to Post-1947 Topics

The history of 1939–1947 is the bridge between freedom struggle and nation-building. The first decade of independent India (1947–1962) is covered in the Post-1947 series — integration, Constitution-making (Polity Topic 01), planned economy (Five Year Plans), Linguistic Reorganisation 1956, Indo-China War 1962.

Previous Year Questions (PYQ)