Basics, Concepts & the Disaster Management Cycle

Hazard · Vulnerability · Risk · Capacity · Types of Disasters · Need for DM · The 5-Phase DM Cycle · Role of Community, Media, Private Sector & Technology

📄 GS Paper 3🎯 Prelims + Mains⏱ 16 min read📅 Updated June 2026

Understanding Disaster: Core Vocabulary

Disaster Management is the most concept-heavy theme in GS Paper 3 because UPSC tests both the precise definitions (Prelims) and the application of frameworks (Mains). The starting point is a clear grasp of four interlinked terms — hazard, vulnerability, exposure and capacity — whose interaction produces "risk," and whose realisation produces a "disaster."

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 gives the legal definition: a disaster is "a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes... which is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area." The key phrase is "beyond the coping capacity" — a hazard becomes a disaster only when a vulnerable, exposed community cannot cope.

The defining equation: A hazard (a dangerous event) is not the same as a disaster (its destructive impact on people). An earthquake in an uninhabited desert is a hazard; the same earthquake in a densely built, poorly engineered city is a disaster. Disaster = Hazard × Vulnerability × Exposure ÷ Capacity.

The Four Building Blocks

Term	Meaning (UNDRR / NDMA)	Example
Hazard	A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity	Earthquake, cyclone, chemical leak
Vulnerability	Conditions (physical, social, economic, environmental) that increase susceptibility to harm	Weak buildings, poverty, no early warning
Exposure	People, assets or systems located in hazard-prone zones	Coastal settlements, floodplain farms
Capacity	Resources & abilities a community has to manage and reduce risk	Cyclone shelters, trained volunteers, SDRF
Risk	Probable loss = function of hazard, exposure & vulnerability against capacity	Expected deaths/damage in a flood season
Resilience	Ability to anticipate, absorb, recover from and adapt to shocks	"Build back better" after a cyclone

Figure 1: Risk rises with hazard, vulnerability and exposure, and falls as community capacity grows.

Classification & Types of Disasters

The High Powered Committee (1999) and later NDMA broadly classify disasters into natural and human-induced (man-made), with a growing third category of hybrid/socio-natural disasters (e.g., urban floods, GLOFs, landslides triggered by construction).

Category	Sub-types	Examples
Geological / Geophysical	Earthquake, tsunami, landslide, avalanche, land subsidence, volcanic activity	Bhuj EQ 2001, 2004 Tsunami, Joshimath subsidence 2023
Hydro-meteorological / Climatic	Cyclone, flood, urban & flash flood, drought, heatwave, cloudburst, GLOF, lightning	Cyclone Amphan 2020, Wayanad landslide 2024, Sikkim GLOF 2023
Biological	Epidemics, pandemics, pest attacks, animal epidemics	COVID-19 2020, locust swarms 2020
Chemical / Industrial	Gas leaks, industrial accidents, oil spills	Bhopal 1984, Vizag styrene leak 2020
Nuclear & Radiological	Reactor accidents, radiation exposure	Fukushima 2011 (international reference)
Accident-related / Man-made	Stampedes, fires, building/bridge collapse, transport disasters	Morbi bridge 2022, Balasore train 2023

Prelims hook: The NDMP recognises a list of disasters; the 3rd edition of the National Disaster Management Plan (2019) added biological & public-health emergencies, heatwaves, GLOFs and forest fires among new hazards, taking the recognised set to a wider list. Know which are "natural" vs "man-made."

Why Disaster Management Matters for India

India is among the world's most disaster-prone countries — a function of its geography, climate, demography and development pattern.

Geographic exposure: ~58.6% of the landmass is earthquake-prone, ~12% flood-prone, ~5,700 km of coastline is cyclone-prone, and ~68% of cultivable area is drought-vulnerable (NDMA estimates).
Climate change multiplier: Rising frequency and intensity of extreme weather — heatwaves, cloudbursts, erratic monsoons, GLOFs in the Himalaya.
Demographic & developmental pressure: Dense populations, rapid unplanned urbanisation, encroachment of floodplains and wetlands, and fragile hill ecology (e.g., Joshimath).
Economic stakes: Disasters erode GDP, push households into poverty, and undo development gains — making DRR a precondition for sustainable development (links to SDGs & Sendai).
Shift in paradigm: India has moved from a relief-centric, reactive approach to a proactive, prevention-and-mitigation-centric approach — institutionalised by the DM Act 2005 and reinforced by the DM (Amendment) Act 2025.

The Disaster Management Cycle

The DM cycle is the central organising framework of the entire subject. It divides activities into a pre-disaster phase (risk reduction), a during-disaster phase (emergency response) and a post-disaster phase (recovery). UPSC frequently asks candidates to locate a measure within the correct phase.

Pre-Disaster (Risk Reduction)

Prevention: Eliminating the hazard or its impact entirely — e.g., zoning laws that ban construction on floodplains, afforestation to prevent landslides.
Mitigation: Reducing severity — structural (embankments, earthquake-resistant buildings, cyclone shelters) and non-structural (land-use planning, building codes, insurance).
Preparedness: Readiness to respond — early warning systems, mock drills, stockpiling, community training, contingency plans.

During Disaster (Response)

Response: Immediate action to save lives and meet basic needs — search & rescue (NDRF/SDRF), evacuation, relief camps, medical aid, restoration of lifeline services.

Post-Disaster (Recovery)

Rehabilitation: Restoring basic services and livelihoods to a functioning level.
Reconstruction / Recovery: Rebuilding — ideally on the principle of "Build Back Better" (BBB), making infrastructure more resilient than before.

Key insight: The modern emphasis is on shifting investment "left of the bang" — i.e., toward the pre-disaster phase (prevention, mitigation, preparedness), because every rupee spent on mitigation saves multiple rupees in response and recovery. This is the heart of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR).

Figure 2: The continuous DM cycle — prevention, mitigation and preparedness (pre), response (during), recovery (post).

Role of Different Actors

Effective disaster management is a multi-stakeholder endeavour. The state cannot act alone; communities, media and the private sector are force-multipliers.

Community — The First Responder

Communities are always the first on the scene — most lives in the "golden hour" are saved by neighbours, not external agencies.
Community-Based Disaster Management (CBDM) uses local knowledge, volunteers (Aapda Mitra scheme), and village/ward-level plans for evacuation and rescue.
Builds ownership, reduces dependence, and ensures last-mile reach of early warnings.

Media — Information Lifeline (Double-Edged)

Positive: Disseminating early warnings, public-awareness, real-time situational reporting, mobilising aid, accountability.
Negative: Sensationalism, rumour and panic, misinformation/deepfakes, intrusion into rescue operations, "disaster tourism."
Social media is now a two-way tool — citizens crowdsource needs (e.g., Chennai 2015, Kerala 2018) while agencies use platforms like SACHET/CAP for alerts.

Private Sector & NGOs

CSR-funded relief, logistics and technology; business-continuity planning protects supply chains and jobs.
NGOs & faith-based groups provide last-mile relief, psychosocial care and rehabilitation.
Public-Private Partnerships for resilient infrastructure and insurance solutions.

Role of Technology

Early warning & forecasting: IMD, INCOIS (tsunami/ocean), satellite remote sensing (ISRO/NRSC), Doppler radars, Mission Mausam (2024).
Mapping & assessment: GIS, drones/UAVs for damage assessment and rescue, big-data analytics, AI/ML for risk modelling.
Communication: Common Alerting Protocol (CAP), SACHET cell-broadcast alerts, ham radio, NDMA's mobile apps.
Response: Robotics, IoT sensors (landslide/flood gauges), 3D-printing, blockchain for transparent relief delivery.

Figure 3: How technology supports each phase of the disaster management cycle.

Current Affairs Snapshot (up to June 2026)

DM (Amendment) Act, 2025: Received assent on 29 March 2025; strengthens NDMA/SDMA (they now prepare the plans), grants statutory status to the NCMC & High-Level Committee, mandates a national disaster database, and provides for Urban Disaster Management Authorities (UDMAs) in major cities and statutory State Disaster Response Forces.
Mission Mausam (2024): ₹2,000-crore initiative to make India "weather-ready and climate-smart" with better observation networks, AI-based forecasting and cloud-seeding research.
Wayanad landslides (July 2024): One of India's deadliest landslide disasters; renewed focus on Western Ghats fragility and early-warning gaps.
Sikkim GLOF (October 2023): South Lhonak Lake outburst devastated the Teesta basin — flagship case for Glacial Lake Outburst Flood risk in a warming Himalaya.
Sendai Framework Midterm Review (2023): Global stock-take showing the world is off-track on DRR targets, urging faster risk-informed investment.
NDMF / SDMF: The 15th Finance Commission created dedicated mitigation funds (National & State Disaster Mitigation Funds) alongside response funds — institutionalising the "left of the bang" shift.

Previous Year Questions — Prelims PRELIMS

How to use: Prelims rewards precise definitions and institutional facts. Master the hazard-vulnerability-risk distinction and the recognised disaster categories.

UPSC Prelims 2021 Concept

Q. With reference to the "New York Declaration on Forests", which of the following are correct? (DRR-linked land-use theme.) — More broadly, Prelims has repeatedly tested the difference between hazard, vulnerability and risk.

Key Points to Remember

Hazard ≠ disaster: a hazard is the event; a disaster is its impact on a vulnerable, exposed community.
Vulnerability = susceptibility to harm (physical, social, economic, environmental).
Risk = probable loss = hazard × exposure × vulnerability ÷ capacity.
Resilience & "Build Back Better" are post-Sendai recovery concepts.

UPSC Prelims 2017 Definition

Q. "Disaster Management Act, 2005" — which authority is at the apex, and what does the Act define as a 'disaster'? (Recurring Prelims theme on the statutory definition and institutional apex.)

Key Points to Remember

NDMA (chaired by the PM) is the apex body under the DM Act, 2005.
The Act defines disaster as an event "beyond the coping capacity of the community" — natural OR man-made.
The Act created a three-tier structure: NDMA (national), SDMA (state), DDMA (district).
NDRF is the specialist response force; NIDM handles training & research.

UPSC Prelims 2016 Classification

Q. Which of the following are 'natural' as opposed to 'man-made' disasters? (Prelims regularly tests categorisation — geological, hydro-meteorological, biological vs. chemical/nuclear/accidental.)

Key Points to Remember

Natural: earthquake, tsunami, cyclone, flood, drought, landslide, GLOF, heatwave.
Man-made: chemical/industrial accidents, nuclear leaks, oil spills, stampedes, fires, transport crashes.
Hybrid/socio-natural: urban floods, many landslides, Joshimath-type subsidence (human-aggravated).
NDMP 2019 expanded the recognised list (biological, heatwave, GLOF, forest fire).

Previous Year Questions — Mains with Model Answer Structures MAINS

How to use: Each model answer is a structured outline. Flesh out each point into 2–3 sentences in the exam. PYQs are covered up to UPSC Mains 2025.

UPSC GS3 2016 12.5 marks · 200 words

Q. "The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India's preparedness for mitigation of their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects."

Model Answer Structure

Intro: India's high seismic exposure — ~59% of land in Zones III–V; place earthquake within the hazard-vulnerability-risk framework.
Why impact is rising: Hazard constant, but vulnerability & exposure growing — unplanned urbanisation, non-engineered buildings, dense populations.
Preparedness gaps: Poor enforcement of building codes (BIS), weak retrofitting, low public awareness, patchy early-warning, inadequate urban DM plans.
Institutional response: NDMA guidelines, National EQ Risk Mitigation Project, NDRF capacity.
Way forward — mitigation cycle: Enforce codes, retrofit lifeline buildings, micro-zonation, mock drills, CBDM, "Build Back Better."
Conclusion: Shift from response to prevention/mitigation ("left of the bang") to close the gaps.

UPSC GS3 2013 10 marks · 200 words

Q. "How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management? As an administrator, what are the key areas you would focus on in a disaster management system?"

Model Answer Structure

Intro: Define vulnerability & risk assessment as the foundation of pre-disaster (prevention–mitigation–preparedness) planning.
Importance: Identifies who/what is at risk, prioritises scarce resources, informs zoning, codes, early-warning and insurance.
Tools: Hazard mapping (GIS/RS), social-vulnerability indices, capacity audits, scenario modelling.
Administrator's focus — pre: District DM plan, EWS, community training (Aapda Mitra), stockpiling, mock drills.
Administrator's focus — during/post: Incident Response System, coordination (NDRF/SDRF), relief logistics, Build Back Better recovery.
Conclusion: Risk-informed, proactive administration converts a relief-centric system into a resilience-centric one.

UPSC GS3 2020 10 marks · 150 words

Q. "Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach."

Model Answer Structure

Intro: Note the paradigm shift from relief-centric/reactive to prevention-and-mitigation-centric/proactive DM.
Legal-institutional: DM Act 2005, NDMA-SDMA-DDMA tiers; NDMP 2019 aligning with Sendai; later DM (Amendment) Act 2025.
Financial shift: 15th FC mitigation funds (NDMF/SDMF) alongside response funds — investing "left of the bang."
Technology & EWS: INCOIS tsunami warning, CAP/SACHET alerts, GIS risk mapping, Mission Mausam.
International alignment: Sendai Framework, CDRI (India-led), PM's 10-point agenda.
Conclusion: India now treats DRR as integral to development, not an afterthought.

⚡ Quick Revision

Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability × Exposure ÷ Capacity
Hazard ≠ disaster: impact on vulnerable community matters
DM Act 2005 def: "beyond coping capacity"
Cycle: Prevention → Mitigation → Preparedness → Response → Recovery
BBB: Build Back Better (recovery)

📌 Must-Know Facts

~59% of India earthquake-prone
~12% flood-prone; ~68% drought-vulnerable
~7,500 km coastline; cyclone exposure on east coast
DM (Amendment) Act: 2025
NDMP 3rd ed: 2019 (added biological, heatwave, GLOF)
Mission Mausam: 2024

🏛️ Three-Tier Structure

NDMA — apex, chaired by PM
SDMA — state, chaired by CM
DDMA — district, chaired by DC/DM
NDRF — specialist response force
NIDM — training & research

✍️ Answer Keywords

"Left of the bang"
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Build Back Better
Proactive vs. reactive paradigm
Whole-of-society approach
Community as first responder