Topic 10: Biotechnology — Genetic Engineering, GM Crops & Gene Editing

Biotechnology is a top GS-III science area — it links to agriculture, health, industry & ethics. This file covers the basics of DNA, genes & genetic engineering, the key tools (recombinant DNA, PCR, gene cloning, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing), GM crops (Bt cotton, Bt brinjal, GM mustard, golden rice), medical biotechnology (recombinant vaccines, insulin, gene & stem-cell therapy, monoclonal antibodies), industrial & environmental biotech, the bio-economy & BioE3 policy, and bioethics, biosafety & regulation (GEAC) — with labelled diagrams, tables and real dated PYQs with full model answers.

UPSC Prelims · Mains GS-III CRISPR · GM Crops ~40 min read Bioethics & GEAC High CA Weight

1.Biotechnology Basics
2.Genetic Engineering Tools
3.CRISPR & Gene Editing
4.GM Crops & Agriculture
5.Medical Biotechnology
6.Stem Cells & Gene Therapy
7.Industrial & Environmental
8.Bio-economy & Policy
9.Bioethics, Biosafety & Regulation
10.Current Affairs Link
11.Prelims PYQs
12.Mains PYQs + Model Answers
★15-Minute Revision Box

Conceptual Clarity — How UPSC Tests Biotechnology

Biotech is a high-frequency, high-scoring area straddling science, agriculture, health & ethics. Sort your prep into three question-types:

Definitional / static — "what is recombinant DNA?", "what does CRISPR do?", "what is Bt in Bt cotton?". Recall of tools, techniques & terms.
Statement-elimination — GM-crop approvals, gene-editing mechanisms, vaccine types where one detail decides the answer.
Applied / current — a technology or regulation in the news (GM mustard, gene-edited crops, BioE3) linked to a fundamental — the strong GS-III bridge (food security, health, ethics).

Highest-frequency themes: recombinant DNA & PCR · CRISPR-Cas9 · Bt cotton/brinjal & GM mustard · golden rice · stem cells & gene therapy · monoclonal antibodies · GEAC & biosafety · bio-economy/BioE3.

1. Biotechnology Basics

Biotechnology = using living organisms (or their parts — cells, enzymes, genes) to make useful products or processes — from ancient fermentation (curd, bread) to modern genetic engineering.
DNA → gene → protein: genes (segments of DNA) carry instructions to make proteins that decide an organism's traits (Topic 4). Manipulating genes lets us change traits.
Types: red (medical), green (agriculture), white (industrial), blue (aquatic/marine) biotechnology.
Genetic engineering = deliberately altering an organism's DNA — adding, removing or editing genes to give a desired trait (a "genetically modified organism", GMO).

Prelims facts: biotech uses living systems to make products; a GMO has DNA altered by genetic engineering; red/green/white/blue biotech = medical/agri/industrial/marine. Modern biotech began with recombinant DNA in the 1970s.

2. Genetic Engineering Tools

Fig 10.1 — Recombinant DNA: a gene is cut with a restriction enzyme ("molecular scissors") and inserted into a plasmid vector, sealed by DNA ligase, then put into a host cell to express the trait.

Tool	What it does
Restriction enzymes	"Molecular scissors" that cut DNA at specific sequences
DNA ligase	"Molecular glue" that joins DNA fragments
Vectors (plasmids)	Carry the new gene into a host cell
PCR	Polymerase Chain Reaction — makes millions of copies of a DNA segment (used in diagnosis, e.g. RT-PCR for COVID)
Gene cloning	Producing identical copies of a gene or organism

Prelims traps: restriction enzymes cut, ligase joins; PCR amplifies (copies) DNA — it is a diagnostic/amplification tool, not editing. Recombinant DNA = combining DNA from different sources.

3. CRISPR & Gene Editing

CRISPR-Cas9 is a precise, cheap gene-editing tool — a guide RNA locates a target DNA sequence and the Cas9 enzyme cuts it, letting scientists disable, correct or insert genes. (Nobel Prize 2020.)
Unlike older GM (which adds foreign genes), gene editing can tweak an organism's own genes — sometimes leaving no foreign DNA (site-directed nuclease SDN-1/2 edits).
Uses: disease-resistant & climate-resilient crops, treating genetic disorders (sickle cell), research. India has exempted certain gene-edited (SDN-1/SDN-2) plants from strict GM rules to speed research.

Prelims facts: CRISPR-Cas9 = guide RNA + Cas9 "molecular scissors" for precise editing (Nobel 2020); gene editing edits existing genes vs GM adding foreign genes; India eased rules for SDN-1/SDN-2 gene-edited crops.

4. GM Crops & Agriculture

Crop	Trait / status in India
Bt cotton	Carries Bacillus thuringiensis gene for pest (bollworm) resistance — the only GM crop commercially grown in India (since 2002).
Bt brinjal	Pest-resistant brinjal — approved by GEAC but placed under a moratorium in India; grown in Bangladesh.
GM (DMH-11) mustard	Hybrid mustard using barnase/barstar genes — got environmental clearance; under legal & public debate.
Golden Rice	Rice engineered to produce beta-carotene (Vitamin A) — aimed at fighting Vitamin-A deficiency.

Prelims traps: Bt cotton is the only GM crop commercially cultivated in India; Bt brinjal is approved but under moratorium; GM mustard is a herbicide-tolerant hybrid under debate; golden rice targets Vitamin-A deficiency. Bt = a bacterial insecticidal gene.

5. Medical Biotechnology

Recombinant products: human insulin, growth hormone & clotting factors made in engineered bacteria/yeast — safer & cheaper than animal sources.
Recombinant & new-platform vaccines: Hepatitis-B (recombinant), DNA/mRNA & vector vaccines (Topic 5) — faster to design.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs): lab-made antibodies targeting one antigen — used in cancer, autoimmune disease & COVID therapy.
Molecular diagnostics: PCR, RT-PCR & genetic tests for early, accurate disease detection.

Prelims facts: recombinant insulin was the first major biotech drug; monoclonal antibodies are single-target lab antibodies; recombinant Hepatitis-B vaccine is made without the whole virus. Biotech underpins modern diagnostics & personalised medicine.

6. Stem Cells & Gene Therapy

Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can divide & become different cell types. Embryonic (pluripotent), adult (multipotent) & induced pluripotent (iPSC) — adult cells reprogrammed to stem-like state.
Uses: regenerative medicine, bone-marrow transplant, tissue repair, research & drug testing.
Gene therapy = treating a disease by correcting or replacing a faulty gene — somatic (body cells, not inherited) vs germline (heritable, ethically restricted).
CAR-T cell therapy (engineered immune cells) treats some cancers; India has developed its own CAR-T therapy.

Ethics & prelims: iPSCs avoid the ethical issue of embryonic stem cells; germline gene editing (heritable) is banned/restricted worldwide; somatic therapy affects only the patient. CAR-T = engineered T-cells against cancer.

7. Industrial & Environmental Biotechnology

Area	Examples
Industrial (white)	Enzymes in detergents & food, biofuels (ethanol), bio-plastics, fermentation products
Environmental	Bioremediation (microbes cleaning oil/heavy-metal pollution), sewage treatment, biofertilisers & biopesticides
Bio-energy	Ethanol blending, biogas, algal biofuel — links to clean energy
Bio-based materials	Bioplastics & bio-manufacturing to cut fossil dependence

Key idea: industrial & environmental biotech supports the circular, low-carbon bio-economy — replacing polluting chemical processes with cleaner biological ones (bioremediation, biofuels, biofertilisers).

8. Bio-economy & Policy

Bio-economy = economic activity from biological resources & biotech (pharma, agri-biotech, bio-industry, bio-services). India's bio-economy has grown rapidly to a multi-hundred-billion-dollar target.
BioE3 Policy ("Biotechnology for Economy, Environment & Employment") promotes bio-manufacturing, bio-foundries & high-value bio-based products for sustainable growth.
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) & BIRAC fund research & startups; missions on genome (Genome India), vaccines & bio-manufacturing.

Prelims facts: BioE3 = Biotechnology for Economy, Environment & Employment; DBT & BIRAC drive biotech R&D & startups; Genome India project sequences Indian genomes for precision health.

9. Bioethics, Biosafety & Regulation

GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee, under MoEFCC) is the apex body approving GM organisms & large-scale releases in India.
Biosafety concerns: gene flow to wild/native species, effect on non-target insects & biodiversity, herbicide overuse, corporate seed control, and unknown long-term effects.
Bioethics: germline editing & "designer babies", consent & equity in gene therapy, patenting of life, and biosafety of gain-of-function research.
Biosecurity: risk of misuse of pathogens/biotech (bioweapons) — governed by the Biological Weapons Convention.

GS-III / GS-IV hook: biotech pits innovation & food/health security against biosafety, ethics & equity. GEAC regulates GM in India; the precautionary principle, informed consent & a strong regulator are the balancing tools.

10. Current Affairs Link (2024–2026)

Biotech is a fast-moving news area spanning agriculture, health & policy. Verify the latest before the exam. check for latest update or data

Gene editing & GM debate: eased rules for gene-edited (SDN-1/2) crops, GM mustard court case & new GM approvals apply Sections 3–4. check for latest update or data

BioE3 & bio-economy: the BioE3 policy, bio-manufacturing push & Genome India results keep biotech policy topical. check for latest update or data

Medical biotech: indigenous CAR-T cancer therapy, mRNA/DNA vaccines & new gene therapies apply Sections 5–6. check for latest update or data

Recent theme	Fundamental it tests	Why it matters for UPSC
Gene-edited crops / GM mustard	Gene editing / GM	GS-III food security & ethics.
BioE3 & bio-manufacturing	Bio-economy	GS-III economy & jobs.
CAR-T & gene therapy	Medical biotech	GS-III health.
Genome India	Genomics	GS-III precision health.

Recurring exam hooks: CRISPR · Bt cotton/brinjal & GM mustard · golden rice · monoclonal antibodies · stem cells & CAR-T · GEAC · BioE3 & bio-economy.

11. Prelims PYQs

Objective questions anchored to genuinely tested UPSC themes on biotechnology. Each carries a worked rationale.

UPSC Prelims — GM crops

Q: Which is the only genetically modified crop grown commercially in India?

(a) Bt brinjal
(b) Bt cotton
(c) GM mustard
(d) Golden rice

Answer: (b) Bt cotton (since 2002) is the only GM crop under commercial cultivation in India; Bt brinjal is under moratorium and GM mustard is still contested.

UPSC Prelims — CRISPR

Q: CRISPR-Cas9 technology is used for —

(a) amplifying DNA
(b) precise gene editing
(c) sequencing proteins
(d) cloning whole animals

Answer: (b) CRISPR-Cas9 uses a guide RNA and the Cas9 enzyme to cut DNA at a target site, enabling precise gene editing (Nobel 2020). PCR amplifies DNA.

UPSC Prelims — PCR

Q: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is primarily used to —

(a) edit genes
(b) join DNA fragments
(c) make many copies of a DNA segment
(d) destroy pathogens

Answer: (c) PCR amplifies a DNA segment into millions of copies; RT-PCR is widely used in diagnostics (e.g. COVID-19).

UPSC Prelims — Bt gene

Q: The "Bt" in Bt cotton refers to a gene sourced from —

(a) the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
(b) a virus
(c) a fungus
(d) another plant

Answer: (a) Bt crops carry a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis that produces a protein toxic to specific pests, giving in-built insect resistance.

UPSC Prelims — Golden rice

Q: Golden Rice is genetically engineered to be rich in —

(a) iron
(b) beta-carotene (Vitamin-A precursor)
(c) protein
(d) Vitamin-C

Answer: (b) Golden Rice produces beta-carotene, which the body converts to Vitamin A, to tackle Vitamin-A deficiency and blindness.

UPSC Prelims — Regulation

Q: In India, the apex body that approves the release of genetically modified organisms is the —

(a) ICMR
(b) GEAC
(c) CSIR
(d) FSSAI

Answer: (b) The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC), under the environment ministry, approves large-scale use & release of GMOs in India.

UPSC Prelims — Stem cells

Q: Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are produced by —

(a) extracting cells from embryos
(b) reprogramming adult body cells to a stem-like state
(c) cloning an animal
(d) editing a single gene

Answer: (b) iPSCs are adult cells reprogrammed to behave like embryonic stem cells, avoiding the ethical issues of embryonic stem cells.

UPSC Prelims — Monoclonal antibodies

Q: Monoclonal antibodies are —

(a) identical antibodies targeting a single antigen
(b) a mix of antibodies against many antigens
(c) weakened viruses used as vaccines
(d) gene-editing enzymes

Answer: (a) Monoclonal antibodies are lab-made, identical antibodies that bind one specific antigen — used in cancer, autoimmune & infectious-disease therapy.

Prelims — anticipated themes

Likely: CRISPR vs PCR vs recombinant DNA · Bt cotton/brinjal & GM mustard · golden rice · stem-cell types & CAR-T · monoclonal antibodies · GEAC · BioE3 & bio-economy. check for latest update or data

12. Mains PYQs + Model Answers

Biotechnology anchors GS-III questions on agriculture, health, economy & ethics. The frameworks below show how to deploy it analytically.

Mains GS-III 15 marks · 250 words

Q: Discuss the potential and concerns of genetically modified crops in ensuring India's food security.

Model Answer

Introduction: GM crops (Section 4) engineer traits like pest resistance & nutrition to raise yields — a contested tool for food security.
Potential:
- Higher yields & lower pesticide use (Bt cotton); nutrition (golden rice); climate/pest resilience; reduced import dependence (edible oils via GM mustard).
Concerns: biosafety & gene flow, effect on biodiversity & non-target insects, herbicide overuse, corporate seed monopoly & farmer dependence, and public trust.
Way forward: a robust, transparent GEAC process, case-by-case science-based assessment, labelling, public participation & support for indigenous seeds.
Conclusion: GM can aid food & nutrition security if paired with strong biosafety, regulation & farmer interest.

Mains GS-III 15 marks · 250 words

Q: Gene-editing technologies like CRISPR promise a revolution but raise ethical questions. Examine.

Model Answer

Introduction: CRISPR-Cas9 (Section 3) enables cheap, precise editing of genes — transformative for medicine & agriculture.
Promise:
- Curing genetic disorders (sickle cell), disease/climate-resilient crops, faster research, and precision health.
Ethical concerns: heritable germline editing & "designer babies", consent & equity of access, off-target effects, and biosecurity misuse.
Governance: ban on germline editing, strong ethics review, regulatory clarity (SDN categories), and international norms.
Conclusion: the gains are immense but must be guided by ethics, safety & equity so science serves humanity responsibly.

Mains GS-III 10 marks · 150 words

Q: How can biotechnology contribute to a sustainable bio-economy in India?

Model Answer

Introduction: The bio-economy (Section 8) uses biological resources & biotech for growth, environment & jobs — India's BioE3 policy targets this.
Contributions:
- Bio-manufacturing & bio-based materials replacing fossils; biofuels & biogas; biofertilisers & bioremediation; high-value pharma & agri-biotech.
Enablers: DBT/BIRAC funding, startups, skilled talent & supportive regulation.
Conclusion: a well-supported biotech sector can drive green, inclusive & self-reliant growth.

Mains GS-III 15 marks · 250 words

Q: Assess the role of biotechnology in improving India's healthcare, along with the regulatory challenges.

Model Answer

Introduction: Medical biotech (Sections 5–6) has transformed diagnosis, drugs & therapy — from recombinant insulin to CAR-T.
Healthcare gains:
- Recombinant vaccines & insulin; monoclonal antibodies; molecular diagnostics (RT-PCR); gene & stem-cell therapy; precision/genomic medicine (Genome India).
Regulatory challenges: ethics of gene therapy & stem cells, unproven "stem-cell clinics", data privacy in genomics, affordability & access, and biosafety.
Way forward: strong ethics & regulatory framework, indigenous affordable production, & equitable access.
Conclusion: biotech can democratise quality healthcare if matched by robust, ethical regulation.

Mains GS-III — anticipated themes

Likely: GM crops & food security · CRISPR ethics · bio-economy & BioE3 · biotech in healthcare · stem cells/gene therapy regulation · biosafety & GEAC. check for latest update or data

15-Minute Revision Box

Must-Remember Facts — Biotechnology

Tools:

Restriction enzyme = cut; ligase = join; vector/plasmid = carry gene
PCR = amplify DNA (RT-PCR diagnostics)
CRISPR-Cas9 = precise gene editing (guide RNA + Cas9, Nobel 2020)
Gene editing edits own genes vs GM adds foreign gene

GM crops:

Bt cotton = only GM crop commercial in India (2002)
Bt brinjal = approved but moratorium; GM mustard (DMH-11) debated
Golden rice = beta-carotene (Vitamin A)
Bt = Bacillus thuringiensis pest-resistance gene

Medical biotech:

Recombinant insulin/vaccines; monoclonal antibodies = single-target
Stem cells: embryonic/adult/iPSC (iPSC avoids ethics)
Gene therapy: somatic (safe) vs germline (banned)
CAR-T = engineered T-cells vs cancer

Policy & ethics:

GEAC = approves GMOs in India
BioE3 = biotech for Economy, Environment, Employment
DBT/BIRAC fund R&D; Genome India = sequencing
Concerns: biosafety, gene flow, germline ethics, biosecurity

Highest-frequency themes: CRISPR · Bt cotton/brinjal & GM mustard · golden rice · monoclonal antibodies · stem cells & CAR-T · GEAC · BioE3.

Tool	Does
Restriction enz.	Cut DNA
Ligase	Join DNA
PCR	Copy DNA
CRISPR	Edit gene

Crop	Status
Bt cotton	Commercial
Bt brinjal	Moratorium
GM mustard	Debated
Golden rice	Vit-A

Item	Value
Bt cotton	Since 2002
CRISPR Nobel	2020
GM regulator	GEAC
Policy	BioE3

Topic 10: Biotechnology — Genetic Engineering, GM Crops & Gene Editing

On this page

Conceptual Clarity — How UPSC Tests Biotechnology

1. Biotechnology Basics

2. Genetic Engineering Tools

3. CRISPR & Gene Editing

4. GM Crops & Agriculture

5. Medical Biotechnology

6. Stem Cells & Gene Therapy

7. Industrial & Environmental Biotechnology

8. Bio-economy & Policy

9. Bioethics, Biosafety & Regulation

10. Current Affairs Link (2024–2026)

11. Prelims PYQs

12. Mains PYQs + Model Answers

Model Answer

Model Answer

Model Answer

Model Answer

15-Minute Revision Box

Must-Remember Facts — Biotechnology