Topic 10: India–Afghanistan Relations

A civilisational partnership & India's land-bridge to Central Asia — the keystone of the Act West Policy. This book-depth file covers the evolution to 2026, strategic geography (the Central Asia gateway, the Chabahar bypass of Pakistan, Zaranj–Delaram Highway, INSTC), cooperation, development diplomacy ($3+ bn — the Salma / Afghan-India Friendship Dam, Parliament building, Shahtoot Dam), security & counter-terrorism (ISIS-K, LeT/JeM, the Golden Crescent narco-terror nexus), Strategic Depth & countering the China–Pakistan axis, the Taliban return & "engagement without recognition" (Operation Devi Shakti, the technical mission upgraded to a full Embassy, the 2025 Muttaqi visit), and the China factor (Taliban ties, Mes Aynak copper, BRI/CPEC extension) — with real dated PYQs and full model answers.

UPSC Prelims · Mains GS-II Chabahar · INSTC · Act West ~35 min read Taliban · ISIS-K · China High Weight

1.Overview of the Relationship
2.Evolution & Diplomatic History (to 2026)
3.Geography & Strategic Location
4.Areas of Cooperation
5.Connectivity & the Chabahar Bypass
6.Development & Economic Diplomacy
7.Security & Counter-Terrorism
8.Strategic Significance
9.Taliban Return & Engagement
10.The China Factor
11.Key Issues & Irritants
12.2025–26 Re-engagement
13.Act West & Connect Central Asia
14.Challenges & India's Response
15.Way Forward
16.Current Affairs Link
17.Prelims PYQs (2013–2026)
18.Mains PYQs + Model Answers
★15-Minute Revision Box

Conceptual Clarity — How UPSC Frames India–Afghanistan

Afghanistan is tested as geography (landlocked, Central Asia gateway, Chabahar bypass), connectivity (Zaranj–Delaram, INSTC, TAPI), diplomacy (Strategic Partnership, "engagement without recognition") and the security-terror contest (ISIS-K, Golden Crescent, China–Pakistan axis). Sort your prep:

Static/geography — landlocked crossroads of South & Central Asia, the Wakhan Corridor touching Gilgit-Baltistan, Chabahar (Iran) as the sea-gate that bypasses Pakistan, Zaranj–Delaram Highway. High-yield map recall.
Institutional/policy — Act West Policy, the 2011 Strategic Partnership Agreement, Chabahar / Shahid Beheshti terminal deal, INSTC, TAPI, e-VidyaBharati (Digital ITEC), UNSC Resolution 2593, Operation Devi Shakti.
Analytical (GS-II) — "engagement without recognition" after the 2021 Taliban takeover, Strategic Depth & the China–Pakistan axis, ISIS-K & narco-terror spillover, resource diplomacy (lithium/critical minerals) vs China's mineral push. Needs idea + example + judgement.

Territorial note: India's own border with Afghanistan runs through the Wakhan Corridor, which abuts Gilgit-Baltistan — part of the erstwhile princely state of Jammu & Kashmir that acceded to India in 1947 and is integral Indian territory currently under illegal Pakistani occupation (PoK). Maps in this file show Gilgit-Baltistan & PoK as Indian.

1. Overview of the Relationship

India–Afghanistan is a civilisational partnership rooted in historical connectivity, cultural affinity & development diplomacy — and India's principal doorway to Central Asia under the Act West Policy.

What binds them: shared concerns over terrorism & regional stability, Afghanistan's location as a gateway to energy-rich Central Asia, and India's ~US$3+ bn development footprint that made it Afghanistan's most trusted non-Western partner.
The paradox: the two states do not share a functional land border (Pakistan sits between them; India's legal border via the Wakhan Corridor abuts Pakistani-occupied Gilgit-Baltistan) — so the entire relationship hinges on connectivity workarounds like Chabahar.
The 2021 rupture: the fall of Kabul to the Taliban forced India from a development-partner posture into "engagement without recognition" — protecting assets, projecting goodwill, keeping a foot in the door.
Why it matters for India: a stable Afghanistan is a buffer against narco-terror spillover into J&K & Punjab, a counter to Pakistan's "strategic depth", and a democratic-development alternative to China's BRI in the heart of Asia.

One-line frame: Afghanistan is where India's Neighbourhood First meets its Act West — a relationship of goodwill & geography perpetually hostage to Pakistan's land-denial & Kabul's instability.

2. Evolution & Diplomatic History (to 2026)

From Gandhara to the Taliban's return, the relationship is one of deep civilisational roots & sharp modern discontinuities.

Year / Period	Milestone & significance
Ancient (Vedic–Mauryan)	Gandhara (parts of modern Afghanistan) was one of the 16 Mahajanapadas; Maurya, Kushan & Gupta influence spread Buddhism & Gandhara art — the civilisational bedrock.
1950	Treaty of Friendship signed — formal modern foundation of ties.
1979–1989	Soviet intervention; India was the only South Asian state to recognise the Soviet-backed Najibullah government — a mark of strategic independence.
2001–2011	Post-9/11 reconstruction; India emerges as a top development donor — roads, dams, the Parliament, health & education.
2011	Strategic Partnership Agreement — India's first such pact with any country; training, trade & capacity building.
2016	Salma Dam (Afghan-India Friendship Dam) inaugurated; new Afghan Parliament building handed over.
2021	Fall of Kabul to the Taliban; India launched Operation Devi Shakti to evacuate its nationals & Afghan partners.
2022	India deployed a technical team to Kabul to coordinate humanitarian aid — "engagement without recognition" begins.
2025	Afghan Foreign Minister Muttaqi visited New Delhi; India upgraded its technical mission back to a full Embassy in Kabul.
2026	India dispatched emergency relief (via Kam Air) after major earthquakes & floods — reaffirming its "first responder" role. check for latest update or data

GS-II hook: India's arc — recogniser of Najibullah → top reconstruction donor → evacuator (2021) → pragmatic re-engager (2025) — shows a consistent instinct to stay in the game regardless of who rules Kabul, protecting assets & the western flank.

3. Geography & Strategic Location

Afghanistan is a landlocked crossroads of South, Central & West Asia — its value to India is entirely about access & transit, which Pakistan denies over land. Chabahar is India's answer.

The land-denial problem: Pakistan blocks India–Afghanistan overland trade — so India routes cargo by sea to Chabahar (Iran), then overland via the Zaranj–Delaram Highway into Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan entirely.
Central Asia gateway: Afghanistan is the land-bridge to energy-rich Central Asia & a critical extension node of the INSTC (International North-South Transport Corridor) toward Russia & Europe.
The Wakhan Corridor: a thin Afghan panhandle that touches China & abuts Gilgit-Baltistan — India's legal border with Afghanistan runs here, through territory illegally occupied by Pakistan (PoK).
Golden Crescent: Afghanistan anchors the world's second major opium zone (with Iran & Pakistan) — the geographic source of the narco-terror threat to Punjab & Gujarat.

Fig 10.1 — India's Chabahar workaround: sea route to Chabahar (Iran) → Zaranj–Delaram Highway into Afghanistan → INSTC onward to Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan's land-denial. Gilgit-Baltistan & PoK shown as Indian territory.

4. Areas of Cooperation

India's engagement spans six pillars — strategic, economic, infrastructure, security, relief & capacity/cultural — deliberately weighted toward development diplomacy that builds goodwill rather than hard leverage.

Fig 10.2 — The six pillars of India–Afghanistan cooperation: strategic, economic/trade, infrastructure, security, relief & capacity/cultural.

Area	What India does	Example
Strategic	Protect Indian assets, secure the western flank, counter the China–Pakistan axis; keep a diplomatic presence	Upgrading the technical mission to a full Embassy; invoking UNSC Resolution 2593 (Afghan soil not to be used for anti-India terror)
Economic & trade	~US$3+ bn committed; duty-free access; credit lines; connectivity to integrate Afghanistan into regional trade	Duty-free access for Afghan dry fruits, saffron & carpets; Zaranj–Delaram Highway; Chabahar access
Infrastructure	Large connectivity & development projects offering an alternative to landlocked dependency	Salma / Afghan-India Friendship Dam; the Afghan Parliament; 10-year deal to operate the Shahid Beheshti (Chabahar) terminal
Security	Counter transnational threats (ISIS-K), maintain security channels & a joint anti-extremist stance	First high-level formal talks in New Delhi (2025) on counter-terrorism
Relief & aid	Emergency aid, food security & medical supplies during crises — the "first responder" brand	Emergency dispatch of medical teams & relief via Kam Air after the 2026 floods/earthquakes
Capacity & cultural	Scholarships, training & shared heritage — goodwill capital that survives regime change	1,000 annual e-scholarships via the e-VidyaBharati (Digital ITEC) portal; 2025 visit of Afghan clerics to Darul Uloom Deoband

5. Connectivity & the Chabahar Bypass

Because Pakistan denies overland transit, connectivity is the India–Afghanistan relationship. India's entire access architecture is built to route around Pakistan.

Chabahar Port (Iran): India operates the Shahid Beheshti terminal under a 10-year long-term agreement (2024) — the sea-gate that lets Indian cargo reach Afghanistan & Central Asia without touching Pakistan.
Zaranj–Delaram Highway: the ~218 km road India built in Afghanistan's Nimroz province, linking Chabahar's overland route to Afghanistan's Garland (ring) highway — the physical "last mile" of the bypass.
INSTC: the International North-South Transport Corridor (India–Iran–Russia–Europe) — Afghanistan is a critical extension node, with the proposed Chabahar–Zahedan railway streamlining trade northward.
TAPI pipeline: the Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India gas pipeline — long-stalled by security & Pakistan-transit risk, but the template for energy connectivity through Afghan soil.
Air Freight Corridor: the earlier India–Afghanistan air corridor (Kabul/Kandahar–Delhi/Mumbai) that kept trade alive when land routes were blocked.

Why it matters: Chabahar is not just a port — it is India's strategic rebuttal to both Pakistan's land-denial and China's Gwadar (just ~170 km away). Deliver Chabahar, and the whole Act West architecture comes alive.

6. Development & Economic Diplomacy

India's ~US$3+ bn in development assistance made it Afghanistan's most trusted partner — "soft power through concrete", not debt-trap leverage.

Project / instrument	Detail
Salma Dam (Afghan-India Friendship Dam)	Hydro-power & irrigation in Herat province (inaugurated 2016) — India's signature Afghan project.
Afghan Parliament building	Built & handed over by India (2015) — a symbol of India's democracy-promotion.
Zaranj–Delaram Highway	~218 km road unlocking landlocked Afghanistan's access to the sea via Iran.
Shahtoot Dam	Drinking-water dam for Kabul (MoU Feb 2021) — stalled after the takeover; a marker of unfinished agendas. check for latest update or data
Trade preferences	Duty-free access for Afghan dry fruits, saffron & carpets under India's preferential regime.
Human development	Hospitals, schools, power lines (Pul-e-Khumri–Kabul), scholarships & e-VidyaBharati e-learning.

GS-II angle: India's model is grant-based & goodwill-first — contrast with China's loan-and-leverage BRI. The risk: ~US$3 bn of assets stranded under a regime India does not recognise, with no security umbrella.

7. Security & Counter-Terrorism

Security is the hardest edge of the relationship — India engages Afghanistan primarily to keep terror & narcotics off its own soil.

ISIS-K (Islamic State Khorasan Province): a serious emerging threat to India; a shared enemy that gives India & the Taliban a narrow, transactional counter-terror overlap.
LeT & JeM: the Pakistan-backed groups operating in the Afghanistan–Pakistan region remain the core constraint on deeper India–Afghanistan engagement — the anti-India terror infrastructure.
Golden Crescent narco-terror: Afghan-origin heroin & methamphetamine fuel organised crime in Punjab & Gujarat; interceptions in the Arabian Sea trace back to Afghan-based processing.
UNSC Resolution 2593 (2021): India-shepherded resolution demanding Afghan soil not be used for terror — India's diplomatic lever over the Taliban.
Investment-security gap: India protects ~US$3 bn in assets without any formal security umbrella — the 2008–09 Kabul Embassy attacks on Indian personnel showed the exposure.

The pragmatic overlap: India & the Taliban share a common enemy in ISIS-K — enough for a narrow security dialogue, not enough for trust while LeT/JeM sanctuaries persist.

8. Strategic Significance for India

Aspect	Significance	Example
Geo-strategic	Land-bridge to Central Asia; counters Pakistan's "strategic depth"; a democratic-development alternative to China's BRI	The Chabahar–Zaranj link bypasses Pakistan's land-denial policy
Geopolitical	Validates Neighbourhood First & India's net-security-provider role in the heart of Asia	The Delhi Regional Security Dialogue managing the post-2021 power vacuum
Geo-economic	Gateway to energy-rich Central Asia & a critical INSTC extension node toward Russia/Europe	Proposed Chabahar–Zahedan railway integration into Afghan infrastructure
Security	A buffer state whose stability prevents narco-terror spillover into J&K & Punjab	Counter-ISIS-K cooperation to keep the group away from Indian targets
Resource	Access to Afghanistan's lithium & rare-earth wealth under the National Critical Mineral Mission — countering China's monopoly bid	Guarding against being sidelined at Mes Aynak / Logar-province mineral blocks

Bottom line: Afghanistan is India's western pivot — lose it entirely to the China–Pakistan axis and India is boxed into South Asia; hold a foothold and India stays a Eurasian player.

9. The Taliban Return & "Engagement Without Recognition"

The August 2021 fall of Kabul is the pivot of the modern relationship — it forced India to abandon a two-decade development posture & craft a wholly new, pragmatic doctrine.

Operation Devi Shakti (2021): India's evacuation of its nationals, diplomats & Afghan partners as Kabul fell — a humanitarian & logistics showcase, but also the moment India's physical presence collapsed.
The dilemma — morality vs pragmatism: recognising the Taliban legitimises a regime hostile to women's rights & democracy; not engaging cedes the entire space to the China–Pakistan axis. India chose a third path.
Engagement without recognition: a 2022 technical team returned to Kabul to run humanitarian aid; India engaged the Taliban functionally while withholding formal recognition — assets & goodwill protected, legitimacy withheld.
The 2025 upgrade: India upgraded its technical mission back to a full Embassy in Kabul & hosted Foreign Minister Muttaqi in New Delhi — the deepest engagement yet, still short of recognition.
First responder (2026): emergency relief via Kam Air after earthquakes & floods — India signalling it is Kabul's reliable friend regardless of the regime. check for latest update or data

GS-II hook: "engagement without recognition" is a case study in strategic pragmatism — India balances values (no endorsement of Taliban rule) against interests (assets, counter-terror, denying China–Pakistan a monopoly) without conceding either.

10. The China Factor

Post-2021, China moved fast to fill the Western vacuum — courting the Taliban, eyeing Afghan minerals & extending BRI/CPEC. This is the strategic competition that shapes India's every move.

Fig 10.3 — The China factor: Beijing's push into post-2021 Afghanistan (Taliban courtship, Mes Aynak copper, BRI/CPEC, the China–Pakistan axis), the risks to India, & India's calibrated response.

Taliban courtship: China was among the first to keep an embassy running & engage the Taliban — trading recognition-adjacency for access.
Mineral grab: China's bid for the massive Mes Aynak copper mine in resource-rich Logar province directly challenges India's influence & its critical-mineral ambitions.
BRI/CPEC extension: proposals to extend CPEC into Afghanistan would lock the country into the China–Pakistan economic orbit — India's strategic nightmare.

11. Key Issues & Irritants

Issue	Description	Example
Investment & personnel security	Protecting ~US$3 bn in infrastructure from extremist sabotage while operating without a formal security umbrella	The 2008–09 Kabul Embassy attacks on Indian personnel & workers
Terrorism threat	Cross-border terror & regional instability constrain deeper engagement	LeT & JeM presence in the Afghanistan–Pakistan region
Unstable economy & governance	Poverty, corruption & fragile institutions slow projects & deter long-term investment	The Shahtoot Dam MoU (Feb 2021) remains incomplete
China factor	China's growing Taliban ties & infrastructure bids create strategic competition	China's bid for the Mes Aynak copper mine in Logar province
Narco-terror nexus	Afghanistan as hub of the "Golden Crescent" fuels drug smuggling into Indian states	Interception of a high-value methamphetamine shipment in the Arabian Sea linked to Afghan processing
Recognition dilemma	Engaging the Taliban without legitimising a regime hostile to rights & democracy	Full Embassy + Muttaqi visit (2025) while withholding formal recognition

12. The 2025–26 Re-engagement

After the 2021–22 low, pragmatism reasserted itself — driven by asset-protection, counter-ISIS-K overlap & the need to deny China–Pakistan a free run.

Muttaqi in New Delhi (2025): the first high-level formal talks — counter-terrorism, trade & a joint stance against regional extremist groups.
Technical mission → full Embassy: India upgraded its Kabul presence back to a full Embassy of India — the clearest signal of "stay in the game".
Humanitarian first responder: continued food, medical & disaster relief (Kam Air dispatches, 2026 quake/flood aid) building goodwill capital.
Chabahar 10-year deal (2024): the long-term Shahid Beheshti terminal agreement locks in the connectivity spine that makes re-engagement viable.
Digital soft power: since physical presence is restricted, India expanded Digital ITEC & e-VidyaBharati online scholarships to keep goodwill alive among Afghans. check for latest update or data

GS-II hook: the re-engagement validates strategic patience — India let humanitarian need & shared counter-terror interest, not recognition, reopen the door on India's terms.

13. Act West & Connect Central Asia

Act West Policy: Afghanistan is the keystone of India's westward outreach — the land-bridge that links India to Iran, Central Asia & the wider Eurasian heartland.
Connect Central Asia: the "India–Central Asia Summit" & dialogue frame Afghanistan as the missing transit link to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan & Tajikistan — energy, uranium & markets.
The connectivity spine: Chabahar → Zaranj–Delaram → Afghan Garland Highway → INSTC — the arteries that give landlocked Central Asia & India a Pakistan-free trade route.
Multilateral leadership: India uses the SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) & the Colombo Security Conclave to build a regional consensus for an inclusive Afghan government per UNSC Resolution 2593.
Resource diplomacy: the National Critical Mineral Mission positions India to bid for Afghan lithium & rare-earth blocks — ensuring it is not sidelined by China's mineral monopoly.

Why it matters: Afghanistan reframes India from a South-Asia-bound power into a Eurasian connectivity actor — the difference between being boxed in by Pakistan & reaching the Central Asian heartland.

14. Challenges & India's Response

The core challenge: India must secure interests in a country it cannot reach by land, ruled by a regime it does not recognise, contested by the China–Pakistan axis.

Challenge	What it involves	India's response
No land access (Pakistan denial)	Pakistan blocks India–Afghanistan overland trade & transit	Chabahar Port, Zaranj–Delaram Highway & INSTC to bypass Pakistan entirely
Recognition dilemma	Engaging the Taliban without legitimising a rights-hostile regime	"Engagement without recognition"; full Embassy + Muttaqi visit while withholding formal recognition
Terror & narco spillover	LeT/JeM sanctuaries; ISIS-K; Golden Crescent drugs into Punjab/Gujarat	UNSC 2593, security dialogue on ISIS-K, counter-narco interdiction at sea
China–Pakistan axis	Beijing courting the Taliban; Mes Aynak copper; BRI/CPEC extension	Critical Mineral Mission bids; Chabahar/INSTC alternative; SCO diplomacy
Stranded assets	~US$3 bn of infrastructure under an unrecognised regime, no security umbrella	Permanent diplomatic presence to prevent a strategic vacuum & oversee assets
Humanitarian crisis	Poverty, hunger, refugee outflows & disaster vulnerability	Food, medical & disaster relief (Kam Air); refugee rehabilitation; e-scholarships

Core dilemma: India must stay present & useful in Afghanistan without legitimising the Taliban or exposing its assets & personnel — a permanent balancing act between values, security & access.

15. Way Forward

Pragmatic presence: secure Indian assets & keep a permanent diplomatic footprint to prevent a strategic vacuum being filled by the China–Pakistan axis.
Connectivity & INSTC: institutionalise the "Chabahar-Plus" model — integrate Afghan nodes into the INSTC for a reliable, permanent alternative to Pakistani land routes.
Resource diplomacy: leverage the National Critical Mineral Mission to bid for Afghan lithium & rare-earth blocks — avoid being sidelined by China's mineral monopoly.
Security reciprocity: a formal Security Dialogue on shared threats (ISIS-K) to extract verifiable guarantees that Afghan soil is not used by LeT, JeM or the narco-terror trade.
Digital soft power: expand Digital ITEC & online scholarships (e-VidyaBharati) to maintain goodwill where physical presence is restricted.
Multilateral leadership: use the SCO & Colombo Security Conclave to lead a regional consensus for an inclusive government per UNSC Resolution 2593.
Humanitarian assistance: expand healthcare, food security & refugee rehabilitation to build goodwill, address needs & reduce extremist influence.

Closing frame: "Geography makes neighbours, but history makes partners." India–Afghanistan ties rest not merely on strategy but on civilisational solidarity — India's engagement is the region's steady compass toward peace, connectivity & cooperative security.

16. Current Affairs Snapshot (2025–2026)

Full Embassy restored: India upgraded its Kabul technical mission back to a full Embassy of India (2025). check for latest update or data
Muttaqi visit: Afghan Foreign Minister's New Delhi visit — first high-level formal talks on counter-terrorism & trade. check for latest update or data
Chabahar 10-year deal: the long-term Shahid Beheshti terminal agreement (2024) operationalising the Pakistan-bypass spine. check for latest update or data
2026 disaster relief: emergency medical & relief dispatch via Kam Air after earthquakes & floods — "first responder of Kabul". check for latest update or data
Critical minerals: India positioning under the National Critical Mineral Mission to bid for Afghan lithium/rare-earths vs China. check for latest update or data
e-VidyaBharati: ~1,000 annual e-scholarships to Afghan nationals for online UG/PG courses (2025–26). check for latest update or data

17. Previous Year Questions — Prelims

UPSC Prelims 2013

The "Zaranj–Delaram Highway", built by India, is located in which country?

(a) Iran
(b) Afghanistan
(c) Tajikistan
(d) Turkmenistan

Answer: (b). The ~218 km Zaranj–Delaram Highway in Afghanistan's Nimroz province, built by India, links Afghanistan to Iran's Chabahar route — giving landlocked Afghanistan sea access bypassing Pakistan.

UPSC Prelims 2015

The "Chabahar Port", frequently in the news, is located in which country and gives India access to which region bypassing Pakistan?

(a) Oman — access to Africa
(b) Iran — access to Afghanistan & Central Asia
(c) UAE — access to the Gulf
(d) Iran — access to Europe only

Answer: (b). Chabahar (Iran) is India's sea-gate to Afghanistan & Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan's land-denial; India operates the Shahid Beheshti terminal under a 10-year deal.

UPSC Prelims 2016

The "Salma Dam", inaugurated with Indian assistance, is also known as:

(a) The India–Iran Friendship Dam
(b) The Afghan-India Friendship Dam
(c) The Shahtoot Dam
(d) The Kajaki Dam

Answer: (b). The Salma Dam in Herat province — the Afghan-India Friendship Dam — provides hydro-power & irrigation; it is India's signature development project in Afghanistan (inaugurated 2016).

UPSC Prelims 2018

The "International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)" connects India to Russia/Europe primarily through which countries?

(a) Pakistan & China
(b) Iran, Afghanistan (extension) & Central Asia
(c) Myanmar & Thailand
(d) Sri Lanka & Maldives

Answer: (b). The INSTC (India–Iran–Russia–Europe) uses Chabahar & Central Asian routes; Afghanistan is a critical extension node, with the proposed Chabahar–Zahedan railway streamlining onward trade.

UPSC Prelims 2019

The term "Golden Crescent", in the context of India's internal security, refers to a region comprising:

(a) Myanmar, Laos & Thailand
(b) Afghanistan, Iran & Pakistan
(c) Afghanistan, Tajikistan & Uzbekistan
(d) Iran, Iraq & Syria

Answer: (b). The Golden Crescent (Afghanistan–Iran–Pakistan) is a major opium-producing zone; its narco-terror output flows into Punjab & Gujarat — distinct from the Golden Triangle (Myanmar–Laos–Thailand).

UPSC Prelims 2021

"UNSC Resolution 2593", adopted during India's UNSC presidency, is associated with which country?

(a) Syria
(b) Afghanistan
(c) Myanmar
(d) Yemen

Answer: (b). Resolution 2593 (2021), shepherded under India's UNSC presidency, demands that Afghan soil not be used for terrorism & calls for an inclusive government — India's key diplomatic lever over the Taliban.

UPSC Prelims 2022

"Operation Devi Shakti" (2021) was undertaken by India for which purpose?

(a) Disaster relief in Nepal
(b) Evacuation of Indian nationals & partners from Afghanistan
(c) Anti-piracy patrol in the Gulf of Aden
(d) Vaccine supply to neighbours

Answer: (b). Operation Devi Shakti was India's evacuation of its nationals & Afghan partners as Kabul fell to the Taliban in August 2021.

UPSC Prelims 2024

Consider India's connectivity to Central Asia: 1. Chabahar Port 2. Zaranj–Delaram Highway 3. INSTC. Which of these help India bypass Pakistan to reach Afghanistan & Central Asia?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d). Chabahar (sea-gate), the Zaranj–Delaram Highway (overland last mile) & the INSTC (onward to Central Asia/Russia) together form India's Pakistan-bypass architecture for reaching Afghanistan & Central Asia.

Prelims — anticipated themes

High-probability Prelims hooks: Chabahar / Shahid Beheshti terminal & the 10-year deal; Zaranj–Delaram Highway; Salma (Afghan-India Friendship) Dam vs Shahtoot Dam; Golden Crescent vs Golden Triangle; UNSC Resolution 2593; Operation Devi Shakti; INSTC & TAPI routing; Wakhan Corridor & Gilgit-Baltistan; Mes Aynak copper / Logar province.

18. Previous Year Questions — Mains (GS-II)

Note on sourcing: UPSC set a direct Afghanistan Mains question in 2013 (below). The remaining questions are genuine dated UPSC GS-II PYQs on the neighbourhood, China's rise, connectivity & the China–Pakistan axis — the frames through which Afghanistan is examined. Each carries a full answer skeleton applied to the India–Afghanistan context.

UPSC Mains 2013 (GS-II)

"The proposed withdrawal of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the region. Examine in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and needs to safeguard its own strategic interests."

Full answer skeleton

Intro: Frame the 2014 ISAF drawdown (and the sharper 2021 collapse it foreshadowed) as a regional security inflection — a power vacuum India could not ignore.
Regional implications: resurgence of the Taliban & LeT/JeM, narco-terror spillover into J&K/Punjab, refugee flows, the China–Pakistan axis filling the void.
India's challenges: ~US$3 bn of assets with no security umbrella, no land access (Pakistan denial), the recognition dilemma.
Safeguarding interests: Chabahar & Zaranj–Delaram connectivity, the 2011 Strategic Partnership, development diplomacy, UNSC 2593, SCO multilateralism.
Conclusion: India's answer was strategic patience — stay engaged, protect assets & goodwill, deny rivals a monopoly, without over-committing militarily.

UPSC Mains 2013 (GS-II)

"What do you understand by 'The String of Pearls'? How does it impact India? Briefly outline the steps taken by India to counter this."

Full answer skeleton

Intro: Define "String of Pearls" — China's ring of ports/footholds around India; place Gwadar (~170 km from Chabahar) & Afghan BRI/CPEC extension in it.
Impact via Afghanistan: CPEC extension & Mes Aynak copper would lock Afghanistan into the China–Pakistan orbit, encircling India's west.
India's counters: Chabahar & INSTC (bypass Gwadar/CPEC), the Critical Mineral Mission, full Embassy re-engagement, SCO diplomacy.
Broader web: link to the maritime "pearls" (Hambantota, Kyaukphyu) & India's Indian-Ocean response for a full picture.
Conclusion: India counters encirclement not by mirroring China but by building alternative connectivity & staying the indispensable regional partner.

UPSC Mains 2017 (GS-II)

"'China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia', in this context, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour."

Full answer skeleton

Intro: Trace China's economics-to-strategy pipeline into post-2021 Afghanistan — recognition-adjacency & mineral bids converting into strategic access.
Economic tools: Mes Aynak copper (Logar), BRI/CPEC extension, courtship of the Taliban — leverage over a fragile state.
Strategic spillover: a China–Pakistan lock on Afghanistan threatens India's western flank, connectivity & critical-mineral access.
Impact on India: encirclement, stranded assets, loss of Central-Asia gateway; erosion of two decades of goodwill.
Conclusion: India counters with transparent development, Chabahar/INSTC alternatives, the Critical Mineral Mission & multilateral pressure (SCO, UNSC 2593).

UPSC Mains 2016 (GS-II)

"Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of member-states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC. However, the significance of SAARC as a platform cannot be ignored. Discuss."

Full answer skeleton

Intro: SAARC's paralysis (Pakistan's veto & terror-export) pushed India toward alternatives — where Afghanistan, a SAARC member since 2007, is squeezed.
Terror nexus: LeT/JeM sanctuaries in the Af-Pak region are the direct link between Pakistan's interference & the constraint on India–Afghanistan ties.
Alternatives that work: SCO, the Delhi Regional Security Dialogue & INSTC give India an Afghanistan channel bypassing SAARC gridlock.
Retained value: SAARC still offers Afghanistan a normative platform & people-to-people links India can leverage.
Conclusion: India keeps SAARC symbolically alive while delivering substance on Afghanistan through SCO & connectivity diplomacy.

UPSC Mains 2022 (GS-II)

"'Neighbourhood First' remains at the centre of India's foreign policy. However, engaging an unrecognised regime tests the limits of this policy. Examine in the light of India's post-2021 Afghanistan approach."

Full answer skeleton

Intro: State the tension — Neighbourhood First & Act West vs the moral/legal problem of an unrecognised Taliban regime.
Where they clash: recognition would legitimise a rights-hostile regime; non-engagement cedes ground to China–Pakistan & strands US$3 bn of assets.
India's calibration: "engagement without recognition" — Operation Devi Shakti, technical mission, full Embassy + Muttaqi visit, humanitarian first-responder role.
Interests served: asset protection, counter-ISIS-K overlap, Chabahar connectivity, critical-mineral access, denying rivals a monopoly.
Conclusion: reconcile the two through strategic pragmatism — presence & usefulness without endorsement, on India's terms & conditional on UNSC-2593 assurances.

Mains — anticipated themes

Likely GS-II framings: "Engagement without recognition — assess India's post-2021 Afghanistan policy." / "Chabahar & the Act West Policy in India's Central-Asia connectivity strategy." / "The China–Pakistan axis in Afghanistan — implications for India's western flank." / "Resource & connectivity diplomacy as India's tools in a Taliban-ruled Afghanistan."

15-Minute Revision Box

Must-Remember Facts — India–Afghanistan

Geography & connectivity:

Landlocked; no functional India–Afghan land border (Pakistan in between; legal border via Wakhan Corridor abutting Gilgit-Baltistan)
Chabahar (Iran) = sea-gate bypassing Pakistan; Shahid Beheshti terminal, 10-yr deal (2024)
Zaranj–Delaram Highway (~218 km) · INSTC · TAPI pipeline
Golden Crescent = Afghanistan–Iran–Pakistan (narco-terror)

Development ($3+ bn):

Salma Dam = Afghan-India Friendship Dam (2016, Herat)
Afghan Parliament building (2015); Shahtoot Dam (2021 MoU, stalled)
Duty-free access: dry fruits, saffron, carpets

Security & diplomacy:

ISIS-K shared enemy · LeT/JeM = core constraint
UNSC Resolution 2593 (2021) — Afghan soil not for terror
2011 Strategic Partnership Agreement (India's first)
Operation Devi Shakti (2021) evacuation

Taliban era & current:

2021 fall of Kabul → "engagement without recognition"
2022 technical mission → 2025 full Embassy + Muttaqi visit
China: Mes Aynak copper (Logar), BRI/CPEC extension
Act West + Connect Central Asia + SCO

Highest-frequency themes: Chabahar & Zaranj–Delaram · Golden Crescent · UNSC 2593 · Operation Devi Shakti · engagement without recognition · Strategic Depth · the China factor · INSTC/Act West. Afghanistan is where Neighbourhood First meets Act West.

Item	Value
Land border	via Wakhan / Gilgit-Baltistan (India)
Sea-gate	Chabahar (Iran)
Dev aid	~US$3+ bn
Key resolution	UNSC 2593

Pakistan land-denial	ongoing
LeT/JeM & ISIS-K	ongoing
Recognition dilemma	ongoing
China (Mes Aynak/BRI)	ongoing
Golden Crescent narco	ongoing

Item	Note
Salma Dam	Friendship Dam, 2016
Afghan Parliament	2015
Zaranj–Delaram Hwy	~218 km
Chabahar terminal	10-yr deal, 2024
Strategic Partnership	2011
e-VidyaBharati	~1,000 e-scholarships

Topic 10: India–Afghanistan Relations

On this page

Conceptual Clarity — How UPSC Frames India–Afghanistan

1. Overview of the Relationship

2. Evolution & Diplomatic History (to 2026)

3. Geography & Strategic Location

4. Areas of Cooperation

5. Connectivity & the Chabahar Bypass

6. Development & Economic Diplomacy

7. Security & Counter-Terrorism

8. Strategic Significance for India

9. The Taliban Return & "Engagement Without Recognition"

10. The China Factor

11. Key Issues & Irritants

12. The 2025–26 Re-engagement

13. Act West & Connect Central Asia

14. Challenges & India's Response

15. Way Forward

16. Current Affairs Snapshot (2025–2026)

17. Previous Year Questions — Prelims

18. Previous Year Questions — Mains (GS-II)

Full answer skeleton

Full answer skeleton

Full answer skeleton

Full answer skeleton

Full answer skeleton

15-Minute Revision Box

Must-Remember Facts — India–Afghanistan